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<setfilename file="latex2e.info" spaces=" ">latex2e.info</setfilename>
<set name="UPDATED" line=" UPDATED May 2013">May 2013</set>
<settitle spaces=" ">&latex;2e reference manual (May 2013)</settitle>
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<copying endspaces=" ">
<para>This document is an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a
document preparation system, version of May 2013.
</para>
<para>This manual was originally translated from <file>LATEX.HLP</file> v1.0a in
the VMS Help Library.  The pre-translation version was written by
George&nbsp;D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University.  The
&latex;&nbsp;2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore.  The
&latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen.  Karl
Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges
using <cite>Hypertext Help with &latex;</cite>, by Sheldon Green, and the
<cite>&latex; Command Summary</cite> (for &latex; 2.09) by L.&nbsp;Botway
and C.&nbsp;Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as
<cite>&tex;niques</cite> number 10), as reference material (no text was
directly copied).
</para>
<para>Copyright &copyright; 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 Karl Berry.&linebreak;
Copyright &copyright; 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.&linebreak;
Copyright &copyright; 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen.
</para>
<para>Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.
</para>
<ignore>
Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the
results, provided the printed document carries copying permission
notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph
(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).
</ignore>

<para>Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire
resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission
notice identical to this one.
</para>
<para>Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions.
</para></copying>

<dircategory spaces=" ">TeX</dircategory>
<direntry endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menutitle separator=": ">LaTeX2e</menutitle><menunode separator=".              ">(latex2e)</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Unofficial LaTeX reference manual.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></direntry>

<tex endspaces=" ">
\global\hbadness=4444 % don&textrsquo;t complain much
</tex>

<titlepage endspaces=" ">
<title spaces=" ">&latex;: Structured documents for &tex;</title>
<subtitle spaces=" ">unofficial &latex; reference manual</subtitle>
<subtitle spaces=" ">May 2013</subtitle>
<author spaces=" "><url><urefurl>http://home.gna.org/latexrefman</urefurl></url></author>
<page></page>
<vskip> 0pt plus 1filll</vskip>
<insertcopying></insertcopying>
</titlepage>

<shortcontents></shortcontents>
<contents></contents>

<node name="Top" spaces=" "><nodename>Top</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">About this document</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">(dir)</nodeup></node>
<top spaces=" "><sectiontitle>&latex;2e</sectiontitle>

<para>This document is an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a
document preparation system, version as of May 2013.  It is
intended to cover &latex;2e, which has been the standard version of
&latex; for many years.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">About this document</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Bug reporting, etc.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                    ">Overview</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">What is &latex;?
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Starting &amp; ending</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">The standard beginning and end of a document.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Document classes</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Some of the various classes available.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Typefaces</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">And fonts, such as bold, italics etc.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Layout</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Controlling the page layout.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Sectioning</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">How to section properly.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Cross references</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Automatic referencing.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Environments</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Such as enumerate &amp; itemize.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::	        ">Line breaking</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Influencing line breaks.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::	        ">Page breaking</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Influencing page breaks.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Footnotes</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">How to produce footnotes.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Definitions</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Define your own commands etc.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Counters</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Internal counters used by &latex;.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Lengths</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">The length commands.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Making paragraphs</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Paragraph commands.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Math formulas</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">How to create mathematical formulas.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Modes</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Paragraph, Math or LR modes.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Page styles</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Various styles of page layout.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		        ">Spaces</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Horizontal and vertical space.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                       ">Boxes</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Making boxes.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Special insertions</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Inserting reserved and special characters.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Splitting the input</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Dealing with big files by splitting.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Front/back matter</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::			">Letters</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">The letter class.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::	">Terminal input/output</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">User interaction.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                ">Command line</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">System-independent command-line behavior.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">Document templates</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Starter templates for various document classes.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">Concept Index</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">General index.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           	">Command Index</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Alphabetical list of &latex; commands.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


</top>
<node name="About-this-document" spaces=" "><nodename>About this document</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Overview</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Top</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>About this document</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="1">Knuth, Donald E.</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="2">Lamport, Leslie</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="3">&latex; Project team</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The &latex; document preparation system is implemented as a macro
package for Donald&nbsp;E. Knuth&textrsquo;s &tex; typesetting program.
&latex; was originally created by Leslie Lamport; it is now
maintained by a group of volunteers (<url><urefurl>http://latex-project.org</urefurl></url>).
The official documentation written by the &latex; project is
available from their web site.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="4">bug reporting</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="5">reporting bugs</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="1"><email><emailaddress>latexrefman-discuss&arobase;gna.org</emailaddress></email> <r>email address</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>The present document is completely unofficial and has not been
reviewed by the &latex; maintainers.  Do not send bug reports or
anything else about this document to them.  Instead, please send all
comments to <email><emailaddress>latexrefman-discuss&arobase;gna.org</emailaddress></email>.
</para>
<para>The home page for this document is
<url><urefurl>http://home.gna.org/latexrefman</urefurl></url>.  That page has links to the
current output in various formats, sources, mailing lists, and other
infrastructure.
</para>
<para>Of course, there are many, many other sources of information about
&latex;.  Here are a few:
</para>
<table commandarg="url" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="url">http://www.ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Two pages of recommended references to &latex; documentation.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="url">http://www.ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="url">http://www.ctan.org/pkg/usrguide</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The guide for document authors maintained as part of &latex;; there
are several others.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="url">http://tug.org/begin.html</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Introduction to the &tex; system, including &latex;.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>


</chapter>
<node name="Overview" spaces=" "><nodename>Overview</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Starting &amp; ending</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">About this document</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Overview of &latex;</sectiontitle>

<para>What is &latex;?
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="6">overview of &latex;</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="7">basics of &latex;</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="8">&latex; overview</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&latex; typesets a file of text using the &tex; program and the
&latex; &textldquo;macro package&textrdquo; for &tex;.  That is, it processes an input
file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that
describe how the text should be formatted.  &latex; files are plain
text that can be written in any reasonable editor.  It produces at
least three files as output:
</para>
<enumerate first="1" endspaces=" ">
<listitem>
<para>The main output file, which is one of:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">.dvi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="2">.dvi <r>file</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="3">latex <r>command</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>If invoked as <command>latex</command>, a &textldquo;Device Independent&textrdquo; (<file>.dvi</file>)
file is produced.  This contains commands that can be translated into
commands for virtually any output device.  You can view such
<file>.dvi</file> output of &latex; by using a program such as
<command>xdvi</command> (display directly), <command>dvips</command> (convert to
PostScript), or <command>dvipdfmx</command> (convert to PDF).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">.pdf</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="4">.pdf <r>file</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="9">pdf&tex;</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="5">pdflatex <r>command</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>If invoked as <command>pdflatex</command>, a &textldquo;Portable Document Format&textrdquo;
(<file>.pdf</file>) file.  Typically, this is a self-contained file, with
all fonts and images embedded.  This can be very useful, but it does
make the output much larger than the <file>.dvi</file> produced from the
same document.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="6">lualatex <r>command</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="10">Lua&tex;</indexterm></cindex>
<para>If invoked as <command>lualatex</command>, a <file>.pdf</file> file is created using
the Lua&tex; engine (<url><urefurl>http://luatex.org</urefurl></url>).
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="7">xelatex <r>command</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="11">Xe&tex;</indexterm></cindex>
<para>If invoked as <command>xelatex</command>, a <file>.pdf</file> file is created using
the Xe&tex; engine (<url><urefurl>http://tug.org/xetex</urefurl></url>).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>Many other less-common variants of &latex; (and &tex;) exist, which
can produce HTML, XML, and other things.
</para>
</listitem><listitem>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="12">transcript file</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="13">log file</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="8">.log <r>file</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>The &textldquo;transcript&textrdquo; or <file>.log</file> file that contains summary
information and diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the
input file.
</para>
</listitem><listitem>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="14">auxiliary file</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="9">.aux <r>file</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>An &textldquo;auxiliary&textrdquo; or <file>.aux</file> file. This is used by &latex; itself,
for things such as cross-references.
</para></listitem></enumerate>

<para>An open-ended list of other files might be created.  We won&textrsquo;t try to
list them all.  Xxx components?
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="10">\ <r>character starting commands</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="11">[...] <r>for optional arguments</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="12">&lbrace;...&rbrace; <r>for required arguments</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>In the &latex; input file, a command name starts with a <code>\</code>,
followed by either (a)&nbsp;a string of letters or (b)&nbsp;a single
non-letter.  Arguments contained in square brackets, <code>[]</code>, are
optional while arguments contained in braces, <code>&lbrace;&rbrace;</code>, are
required.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="15">case sensitivity of &latex;</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&latex; is case sensitive.  Enter all commands in lower case unless
explicitly directed to do otherwise.
</para>

</chapter>
<node name="Starting-_0026-ending" spaces=" "><nodename>Starting &amp; ending</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Document classes</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Overview</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Starting &amp; ending</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="16">starting &amp; ending</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="17">ending &amp; starting</indexterm></cindex>

<para>A minimal input file looks like the following:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\documentclass&lbrace;<var>class</var>&rbrace;
\begin&lbrace;document&rbrace;
<var>your text</var>
\end&lbrace;document&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent>
<para>where the <var>class</var> is a valid document class for &latex;.
<xref label="Document-classes"><xrefnodename>Document classes</xrefnodename></xref>, for details of the various document classes
available locally.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="18">preamble, defined</indexterm></cindex>
<para>You may include other &latex; commands between the <code>\documentclass</code>
and the <code>\begin&lbrace;document&rbrace;</code> commands (this area is called the
<dfn>preamble</dfn>).
</para>

</chapter>
<node name="Document-classes" spaces=" "><nodename>Document classes</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Typefaces</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Starting &amp; ending</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Document classes</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="19">document classes</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="20">classes of documents</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="13">\documentclass</indexterm></findex>

<para>The class of a given document is defined with the command:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\documentclass[<var>options</var>]&lbrace;<var>class</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent>
<para>The <code>\documentclass</code> command must be the first command in a
&latex; source file.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="14">article <r>class</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="15">report <r>class</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="16">book <r>class</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="17">letter <r>class</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="18">slides <r>class</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>Built-in &latex; document <var>class</var> names are (many other document
classes are available as add-ons; <pxref label="Overview"><xrefnodename>Overview</xrefnodename></pxref>):
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">article  report  book  letter  slides
</pre></example>

<!-- c xx briefly describe each one -->

<para>Standard <var>options</var> are described below.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::   ">Document class options</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Global options.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="Document-class-options" spaces=" "><nodename>Document class options</nodename><nodeup automatic="on">Document classes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Document class options</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="21">document class options</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="22">options, document class</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="23">class options</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="24">global options</indexterm></cindex>

<para>You can specify so-called <dfn>global options</dfn> or <dfn>class options</dfn>
to the <code>\documentclass</code> command by enclosing them in square
brackets as usual.  To specify more than one <var>option</var>, separate
them with a comma:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\documentclass[<var>option1</var>,<var>option2</var>,...]&lbrace;<var>class</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Here is the list of the standard class options.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="19">10pt <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="20">11pt <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="21">12pt <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>All of the standard classes except <code>slides</code> accept the following
options for selecting the typeface size (default is <code>10pt</code>):
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">10pt  11pt  12pt
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="22">a4paper <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="23">a5paper <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="24">b5paper <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="25">executivepaper <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="26">legalpaper <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="27">letterpaper <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper
size (default is <code>letterpaper</code>):
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="28">draft <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="29">final <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="30">fleqn <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="31">landscape <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="32">leqno <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="33">openbib <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="34">titlepage <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="35">notitlepage <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>Miscellaneous other options:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">draft, final</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="25">black boxes, omitting</indexterm></cindex>
<para>mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is <code>final</code>.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">fleqn</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">landscape</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Selects landscape format; default is portrait.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">leqno</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">openbib</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Use &textldquo;open&textrdquo; bibliography format.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">titlepage, notitlepage</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>These options are not available with the slides class:
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="36">onecolumn <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="37">twocolumn <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="38">oneside <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="39">twoside <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="40">openright <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="41">openany <r>option</r></indexterm></findex>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">onecolumn</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">twocolumn</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Typeset in one or two columns; default is <code>onecolumn</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">oneside</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">twoside</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="42">\evensidemargin</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="43">\oddsidemargin</indexterm></findex>
<para>Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is <code>oneside</code>, except
for the <code>book</code> class.
</para>
<para>The <code>\evensidemargin</code> (<code>\oddsidemargin</code> parameter determines
the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the
page and the text&textrsquo;s left margin.  The defaults vary with the paper
size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected.  For one-sided
printing the text is centered, for two-sided, <code>\oddsidemargin</code> is
40% of the difference between <code>\paperwidth</code> and <code>\textwidth</code>,
with <code>\evensidemargin</code> the remainder.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">openright</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">openany</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Determines if a chapter should start on a
right-hand page; default is <code>openright</code> for book.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>The <code>slides</code> class offers the option <code>clock</code> for printing
the time at the bottom of each note.
</para>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="26">packages, loading</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="27">loading additional packages</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="44">\usepackage</indexterm></findex>
<para>Additional packages are loaded like this:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\usepackage[<var>options</var>]&lbrace;<var>pkg</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>To specify more than one <var>pkg</var>, you can separate them with a
comma, or use multiple <code>\usepackage</code> commands.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="28">global options</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="29">options, global</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Any options given in the <code>\documentclass</code> command that are unknown
by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
<code>\usepackage</code>.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Typefaces" spaces=" "><nodename>Typefaces</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Layout</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Document classes</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Typefaces</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="30">typefaces</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="31">fonts</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Two important aspects of selecting a <dfn>font</dfn> are specifying a size
and a style.  The &latex; commands for doing this are described here.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                 ">Font styles</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Select roman, italics etc.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                  ">Font sizes</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Select point size.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">Low-level font commands</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Select encoding, family, series, shape.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="Font-styles" spaces=" "><nodename>Font styles</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Font sizes</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Typefaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Font styles</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="32">font styles</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="33">typeface styles</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="34">styles of text</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The following type style commands are supported by &latex;.
</para>
<para>This first group of commands is typically used like
<code>\textit&lbrace;italic text&rbrace;</code>.  The corresponding command in
parenthesis is the &textldquo;declaration form&textrdquo;, which takes no arguments. The
scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command
or the end of the current group.
</para>
<para>The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either
<code>\sffamily\bfseries</code> or <code>\bfseries\sffamily</code> to get bold
sans serif.
</para>
<para>You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations; for
instance, <code>\begin&lbrace;ttfamily&rbrace;...\end&lbrace;ttfamily&rbrace;</code>.
</para>
<para>These commands automatically supply an italic correction if the 
</para><table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textrm (\rmfamily)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="45">\textrm</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="46">\rmfamily</indexterm></findex>
<para>Roman.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textit (\itshape)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="47">\textit</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="48">\itshape</indexterm></findex>
<para>Italics.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\emph</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="49">\emph</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="35">emphasis</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Emphasis (switches between <code>\textit</code> and <code>\textrm</code>).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textmd (\mdseries)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="50">\textmd</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="51">\mdseries</indexterm></findex>
<para>Medium weight (default).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textbf (\bfseries)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="52">\textbf</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="53">\bfseries</indexterm></findex>
<para>Boldface.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textup (\upshape)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="54">\textup</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="55">\upshape</indexterm></findex>
<para>Upright (default). The opposite of slanted.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textsl (\slshape)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="56">\textsl</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="57">\slshape</indexterm></findex>
<para>Slanted.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textsf (\sffamily)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="58">\textsf</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="59">\sffamily</indexterm></findex>
<para>Sans serif.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textsc (\scshape)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="60">\textsc</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="61">\scshape</indexterm></findex>
<para>Small caps.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\texttt (\ttfamily)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="62">\texttt</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="63">\ttfamily</indexterm></findex>
<para>Typewriter.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\textnormal (\normalfont)</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="64">\textnormal</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="65">\normalfont</indexterm></findex>
<para>Main document font.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\mathrm</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="66">\mathrm</indexterm></findex>
<para>Roman, for use in math mode.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\mathbf</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="67">\mathbf</indexterm></findex>
<para>Boldface, for use in math mode.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\mathsf</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="68">\mathsf</indexterm></findex>
<para>Sans serif, for use in math mode.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\mathtt</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="69">\mathtt</indexterm></findex>
<para>Typewriter, for use in math mode.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\mathit</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">(\mit)</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Italics, for use in math mode.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\mathnormal</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="70">\mathnormal</indexterm></findex>
<para>For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\mathcal</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="71">\mathcal</indexterm></findex>
<para>&textlsquo;Calligraphic&textrsquo; letters, for use in math mode.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="72">\mathversion</indexterm></findex>
<para>In addition, the command <code>\mathversion&lbrace;bold&rbrace;</code> can be used for
switching to bold letters and symbols in
formulas. <code>\mathversion&lbrace;normal&rbrace;</code> restores the default.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="73">\oldstylenums</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="36">numerals, old-style</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="37">old-style numerals</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="38">lining numerals</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="39"><code>textcomp</code> package</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Finally, the command <code>\oldstylenums&lbrace;<var>numerals</var>&rbrace;</code> will
typeset so-called &textldquo;old-style&textrdquo; numerals, which have differing heights
and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard &textldquo;lining&textrdquo;
numerals.  &latex;&textrsquo;s default fonts support this, and will respect
<code>\textbf</code> (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style
numerals in Computer Modern).  Many other fonts have old-style
numerals also; sometimes the <code>textcomp</code> package must be loaded,
and sometimes package options are provided to make them the default.
FAQ entry: <url><urefurl>http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf</urefurl></url>.
</para>
<para>&latex; also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to
the given style, that is, are <emph>not</emph> cumulative.  They are used
differently than the above commands, too: <code>&lbrace;\<var>cmd</var> ...&rbrace;</code>
instead of <code>\<var>cmd</var>&lbrace;...&rbrace;</code>.  These are two very different
things.
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="74">\bf</indexterm>\bf</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="40">bold font</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Switch to <b>bold face</b>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="75">\cal</indexterm>\cal</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="41">script letters for math</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="42">calligraphic letters for math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Switch to calligraphic letters for math.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="76">\em</indexterm>\em</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="43">emphasis</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="77">\it</indexterm>\it</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="44">italic font</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Italics.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="78">\rm</indexterm>\rm</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="45">roman font</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Roman.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="79">\sc</indexterm>\sc</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="46">small caps font</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Small caps.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="80">\sf</indexterm>\sf</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="47">sans serif font</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Sans serif.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="81">\sl</indexterm>\sl</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="48">slanted font</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="49">oblique font</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Slanted (oblique).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="82">\tt</indexterm>\tt</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="50">typewriter font</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="51">monospace font</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="52">fixed-width font</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="Font-sizes" spaces=" "><nodename>Font sizes</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Low-level font commands</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Font styles</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Typefaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Font sizes</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="53">font sizes</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="54">typeface sizes</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="55">sizes of text</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The following standard type size commands are supported by &latex;.
The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font
size used (in points) with the <samp>10pt</samp>, <samp>11pt</samp>, and
<samp>12pt</samp> document size options, respectively (<pxref label="Document-class-options"><xrefnodename>Document class
options</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="83">\tiny</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="84">\scriptsize</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="85">\footnotesize</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="86">\small</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="87">\normalsize</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="88">\large</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="89">\Large</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="90">\LARGE</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="91">\huge</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="92">\Huge</indexterm></findex>

<multitable spaces=" " endspaces=" "><columnprototypes><columnprototype bracketed="on"><code>\normalsize</code> (default)</columnprototype> <columnprototype bracketed="on">24.88</columnprototype> <columnprototype bracketed="on">24.88</columnprototype> <columnprototype bracketed="on">24.88</columnprototype></columnprototypes>
<thead><row><entry command="headitem" spaces=" "><para>Command  </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para><code>10pt</code>  </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para><code>11pt</code>  </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para><code>12pt</code>
</para></entry></row></thead><tbody><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\tiny</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>5          </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>6          </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>6
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\scriptsize</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>7          </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>8          </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>8
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\footnotesize</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>8          </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>9          </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>10
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\small</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>9          </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>10         </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>10.95
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\normalsize</code> (default)
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>10         </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>10.95      </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>12
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\large</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>12         </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>12         </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>14.4
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\Large</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>14.4       </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>14.4       </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>17.28
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\LARGE</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>17.28      </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>17.28      </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>20.74
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\huge</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>20.74      </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>20.74      </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>24.88
</para></entry></row><row><entry command="item" spaces=" "><para><code>\Huge</code>
</para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>24.88      </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>24.88      </para></entry><entry command="tab" spaces=" "><para>24.88
</para></entry></row></tbody></multitable>

<para>The commands as listed here are &textldquo;declaration forms&textrdquo;. The scope of
the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the
end of the current group.  You can also use the environment form of
these commands; for instance, <code>\begin&lbrace;tiny&rbrace;...\end&lbrace;tiny&rbrace;</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Low_002dlevel-font-commands" spaces=" "><nodename>Low-level font commands</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">Font sizes</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Typefaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Low-level font commands</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="56">low-level font commands</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="57">font commands, low-level</indexterm></cindex>

<para>These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and
packages.  The commands listed here are only a subset of the available
ones.
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\fontencoding&lbrace;enc&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="93">\fontencoding</indexterm></findex>
<para>Select font encoding. Valid encodings include <code>OT1</code> and <code>T1</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\fontfamily&lbrace;family&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="94">\fontfamily</indexterm></findex>
<para>Select font family. Valid families include:
</para>
<itemize commandarg="bullet" spaces=" " endspaces=" "><itemprepend><formattingcommand command="bullet"/></itemprepend>
<listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>cmr</code>  for Computer Modern Roman
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>cmss</code> for Computer Modern Sans Serif
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>cmtt</code> for Computer Modern Typewriter
</para></listitem></itemize>

<para>and numerous others.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\fontseries&lbrace;series&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="95">\fontseries</indexterm></findex>
<para>Select font series. Valid series include:
</para>
<itemize commandarg="bullet" spaces=" " endspaces=" "><itemprepend><formattingcommand command="bullet"/></itemprepend>
<listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>m</code>  Medium (normal)
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>b</code>  Bold
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>c</code>  Condensed
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>bc</code> Bold condensed
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>bx</code> Bold extended
</para></listitem></itemize>

<para>and various other combinations.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\fontshape&lbrace;shape&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="96">\fontshape</indexterm></findex>
<para>Select font shape. Valid shapes are:
</para>
<itemize commandarg="bullet" spaces=" " endspaces=" "><itemprepend><formattingcommand command="bullet"/></itemprepend>
<listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>n</code>  Upright (normal)
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>it</code> Italic
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>sl</code> Slanted (oblique)
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>sc</code> Small caps
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>ui</code> Upright italics
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><prepend>&bullet;</prepend><para><code>ol</code> Outline
</para></listitem></itemize>

<para>The two last shapes are not available for most font families.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\fontsize&lbrace;size&rbrace;&lbrace;skip&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="97">\fontsize</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="98">\baselineskip</indexterm></findex>
<para>Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and
the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter
named <code>\baselineskip</code>.  The unit of both parameters defaults to
pt.  The default <code>\baselineskip</code> for the Computer Modern typeface
is 1.2 times the <code>\fontsize</code>.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="99">\baselinestretch</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="58"><code>setspace</code> package</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="59">double spacing</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the
<code>\baselinestretch</code> parameter when the type size changes; the
default is 1.  However, the best way to &textldquo;double space&textrdquo; a document,
if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the
<code>setspace</code> package; see
<url><urefurl>http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace</urefurl></url>.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="100">\linespread</indexterm></findex>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\linespread&lbrace;<var>factor</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Equivalent to
<code>\renewcommand&lbrace;\baselinestretch&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>factor</var>&rbrace;</code>, and
therefore must be followed by <code>\selectfont</code> to have any effect.
Best specified in the preamble, or use the <code>setspace</code> package, as
described just above.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="101">\selectfont</indexterm></findex>
<para>The changes made by calling the font commands described above do
not come into effect until <code>\selectfont</code> is called.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\usefont&lbrace;enc&rbrace;&lbrace;family&rbrace;&lbrace;series&rbrace;&lbrace;shape&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="102">\usefont</indexterm></findex>
<para>The same as invoking <code>\fontencoding</code>, <code>\fontfamily</code>,
<code>\fontseries</code> and <code>\fontshape</code> with the given parameters,
followed by <code>\selectfont</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>


</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Layout" spaces=" "><nodename>Layout</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Sectioning</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Typefaces</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Layout</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="60">layout commands</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\onecolumn</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Use one-column layout.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\twocolumn</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Use two-column layout.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\flushbottom</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Make all text pages the same height.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           ">\raggedbottom</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Allow text pages of differing height.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">Page layout parameters</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">\headheight \footskip.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005conecolumn" spaces=" "><nodename>\onecolumn</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\twocolumn</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Layout</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\onecolumn</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="103">\onecolumn</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="61">one-column output</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\onecolumn</code> declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.  This is the default.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005ctwocolumn" spaces=" "><nodename>\twocolumn</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\flushbottom</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\onecolumn</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Layout</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\twocolumn</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="104">\twocolumn</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="62">multicolumn text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="63">two-column output</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\twocolumn[<var>text1col</var>]
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\twocolumn</code> declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional <var>text1col</var> argument is present,
it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting
starts.
</para>
<para>These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="105">\columnsep</indexterm>\columnsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The distance between columns (35pt by default).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="106">\columnseprule</indexterm>\columnseprule</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="107">\columnwidth</indexterm>\columnwidth</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The width of the current column; this is equal to <code>\textwidth</code> in
single-column text.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<para>These parameters control float behavior in two-column output:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="108">\dbltopfraction</indexterm>\dbltopfraction</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied
by floats.  Default <samp>.7</samp>, can be usefully redefined to (say)
<samp>.9</samp> to avoid going to float pages so soon.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="109">\dblfloatpagefraction</indexterm>\dblfloatpagefraction</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats,
for a two-column float page.  Default <samp>.5</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="110">\dblfloatsep</indexterm>\dblfloatsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float
page.  Default <samp>12pt plus2pt minus2pt</samp> for <samp>10pt</samp> and
<samp>11pt</samp> documents, <samp>14pt plus2pt minus4pt</samp> for <samp>12pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="111">\dbltextfloatsep</indexterm>\dbltextfloatsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page
and the main text.  Default <samp>20pt plus2pt minus4pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="_005cflushbottom" spaces=" "><nodename>\flushbottom</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\raggedbottom</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\twocolumn</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Layout</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\flushbottom</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="112">\flushbottom</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\flushbottom</code> declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the
page.
</para>
<para>This is the default if <code>twocolumn</code> mode is selected
(<pxref label="Document-class-options"><xrefnodename>Document class options</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005craggedbottom" spaces=" "><nodename>\raggedbottom</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Page layout parameters</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\flushbottom</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Layout</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\raggedbottom</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="113">\raggedbottom</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="64">stretch, omitting vertical</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\raggedbottom</code> declaration makes all pages the natural
height of the material on that page.  No rubber lengths will be
stretched.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Page-layout-parameters" spaces=" "><nodename>Page layout parameters</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\raggedbottom</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Layout</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Page layout parameters</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="65">page layout parameters</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="66">parameters, page layout</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="67">layout, page parameters for</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="68">header, parameters for</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="69">footer, parameters for</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="70">running header and footer</indexterm></cindex>

<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="114">\headheight</indexterm>\headheight</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Height of the box that contains the running head.  Default is
<samp>30pt</samp>, except in the <code>book</code> class, where it varies with the
type size.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="115">\headsep</indexterm>\headsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of
the main text.  Default is <samp>25pt</samp>, except in the <code>book</code>
class, where it varies with the type size.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="116">\footskip</indexterm>\footskip</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of
the page footer.  Default is <samp>30pt</samp>, except in the <code>book</code>
class, where it varies with the type size.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="117">\linewidth</indexterm>\linewidth</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Width of the current line, decreased for each nested <code>list</code>
(<pxref label="list"><xrefnodename>list</xrefnodename></pxref>).  Specifically, it is smaller than <code>\textwidth</code> by
the sum of <code>\leftmargin</code> and <code>\rightmargin</code>
(<pxref label="itemize"><xrefnodename>itemize</xrefnodename></pxref>).  The default varies with the font size, paper
width, two-column mode, etc.  For an <code>article</code> document in
<samp>10pt</samp>, it&textrsquo;s set to <samp>345pt</samp>; in two-column mode, that
becomes <samp>229.5pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="118">\textheight</indexterm>\textheight</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with
the font size, document class, etc.  For an <code>article</code> or
<code>report</code> document in <samp>10pt</samp>, it&textrsquo;s set to
<samp>43\baselineskip</samp>; for <code>book</code>, it&textrsquo;s <samp>41\baselineskip</samp>.
For <samp>11pt</samp>, it&textrsquo;s <samp>38\baselineskip</samp> and for <samp>12pt</samp>,
<samp>36\baselineskip</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="119">\textwidth</indexterm>\textwidth</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The full horizontal width of the entire page body; the default varies
as usual.  For an <code>article</code> or <code>report</code> document, it&textrsquo;s
<samp>345pt</samp> at <samp>10pt</samp>, <samp>360pt</samp> at <samp>11pt</samp>, and
<samp>390pt</samp> at <samp>12pt</samp>.  For a <code>book</code> document, it&textrsquo;s
<samp>4.5in</samp> at <samp>10pt</samp>, and <samp>5in</samp> at <samp>11pt</samp> or
<samp>12pt</samp>.
</para>
<para>In multi-column output, <code>\textwidth</code> remains the width of the
entire page body, while <code>\columnwidth</code> is the width of one column
(<pxref label="_005ctwocolumn"><xrefnodename>\twocolumn</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<para>In lists (<pxref label="list"><xrefnodename>list</xrefnodename></pxref>), <code>\textwidth</code> remains the width of the
entire page body (and <code>\columnwidth</code> the width of the entire
column), while <code>\linewidth</code> may decrease for nested lists.
</para>
<para>Inside a minipage (<pxref label="minipage"><xrefnodename>minipage</xrefnodename></pxref>) or <code>\parbox</code>
(<pxref label="_005cparbox"><xrefnodename>\parbox</xrefnodename></pxref>), all the width-related parameters are set to the
specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the
<code>minipage</code> or <code>\parbox</code>.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="120">\hsize</indexterm></findex>
<para>For completeness: <code>\hsize</code> is the &tex; primitive parameter used
when text is broken into lines.  It should not be used in normal
&latex; documents.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="121">\topmargin</indexterm>\topmargin</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Space between the top of the &tex; page (one inch from the top of the
paper, by default) and the top of the header.  The default is computed
based on many other parameters: <code>\paperheight &minus; 2in &minus;
\headheight &minus; \headsep &minus; \textheight &minus; \footskip</code>, and
then divided by two.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="122">\topskip</indexterm>\topskip</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of
the first line of text.  For the standard clases, the default is the
same as the font size, e.g., <samp>10pt</samp> at <samp>10pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Sectioning" spaces=" "><nodename>Sectioning</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Cross references</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Layout</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Sectioning</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="71">sectioning</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="123">\part</indexterm>\part</itemformat></item>
</tableterm></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="124">\chapter</indexterm>\chapter</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(report and book class only)
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="125">\section</indexterm>\section</itemformat></item>
</tableterm></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="126">\subsection</indexterm>\subsection</itemformat></item>
</tableterm></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="127">\subsubsection</indexterm>\subsubsection</itemformat></item>
</tableterm></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="128">\paragraph</indexterm>\paragraph</itemformat></item>
</tableterm></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="129">\subparagraph</indexterm>\subparagraph</itemformat></item>
</tableterm></tableentry></ftable>

<para>All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\chapter[<var>toctitle</var>]&lbrace;<var>title</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>In addition to providing the heading <var>title</var> in the main text, the
section title can appear in two other places:
</para>
<enumerate first="1" endspaces=" ">
<listitem>
<para>The table of contents.
</para></listitem><listitem>
<para>The running head at the top of the page.
</para></listitem></enumerate>

<para>You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text.
To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument
<var>toctitle</var> that, when given, specifies the text for these other
places.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="72">*-form of sectioning commands</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Also, all sectioning commands have <code>*</code>-forms that print
<var>title</var> as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an
entry in the table of contents.  For instance:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\section*&lbrace;Preamble&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="130">\appendix</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="73">appendix, creating</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>\appendix</code> command changes the way following sectional units
are numbered.  The <code>\appendix</code> command itself generates no text
and does not affect the numbering of parts.  The normal use of this
command is something like
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\chapter&lbrace;A Chapter&rbrace;
&dots;
\appendix
\chapter&lbrace;The First Appendix&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="131">secnumdepth <r>counter</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="74">section numbers, printing</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>secnumdepth</code> counter controls printing of section numbers.
The setting
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\setcounter&lbrace;secnumdepth&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>level</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent>
<para>suppresses heading numbers at any depth <math>&gt; <var>level</var></math>, where
<code>chapter</code> is level zero.  (<xref label="_005csetcounter"><xrefnodename>\setcounter</xrefnodename></xref>.)
</para>

</chapter>
<node name="Cross-references" spaces=" "><nodename>Cross references</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Environments</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Sectioning</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Cross references</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="75">cross references</indexterm></cindex>

<para>One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer
the reader to them, as in &textldquo;See Figure 3 for more details.&textrdquo;
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">\label</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::    ">\pageref</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Refer to a page number.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\ref</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Refer to a section, figure or similar.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005clabel" spaces=" "><nodename>\label</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\pageref</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Cross references</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\label</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="132">\label</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\label&lbrace;<var>key</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>A <code>\label</code> command appearing in ordinary text assigns to
<var>key</var> the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing
inside a numbered environment assigns that number to <var>key</var>.
</para>
<para>A <var>key</var> name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or
punctuation characters.  Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished.
</para>
<para>To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is
common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by
a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">ch</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>for chapters
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">sec</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>for lower-level sectioning commands
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">fig</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>for figures
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">tab</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>for tables
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">eq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>for equations
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>Thus, a label for a figure would look like <code>fig:snark</code> or
<code>fig.snark</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cpageref" spaces=" "><nodename>\pageref</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\ref</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\label</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Cross references</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\pageref&lbrace;<var>key</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="133">\pageref</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="76">cross referencing with page number</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="77">page number, cross referencing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\pageref&lbrace;<var>key</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\pageref</code>&lbrace;<var>key</var>&rbrace; command produces the page number of
the place in the text where the corresponding
<code>\label</code>&lbrace;<var>key</var>&rbrace; command appears.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cref" spaces=" "><nodename>\ref</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\pageref</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Cross references</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\ref&lbrace;<var>key</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="134">\ref</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="78">cross referencing, symbolic</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="79">section number, cross referencing</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="80">equation number, cross referencing</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="81">figure number, cross referencing</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="82">footnote number, cross referencing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\ref&lbrace;<var>key</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\ref</code> command produces the number of the sectional unit,
equation, footnote, figure, &dots;, of the corresponding
<code>\label</code> command (<pxref label="_005clabel"><xrefnodename>\label</xrefnodename></pxref>).  It does not produce any text,
such as the word &textlsquo;Section&textrsquo; or &textlsquo;Figure&textrsquo;, just the bare number itself.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Environments" spaces=" "><nodename>Environments</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Line breaking</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Cross references</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Environments</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="83">environments</indexterm></cindex>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="135">\begin</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="136">\end</indexterm></findex>

<para>&latex; provides many environments for marking off certain text.
Each environment begins and ends in the same manner:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;<var>envname</var>&rbrace;
...
\end&lbrace;<var>envname</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::    ">abstract</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Produce an abstract.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">array</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Math arrays.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">center</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Centered lines.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator=":: ">description</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Labelled lists.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator=":: ">displaymath</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Formulas that appear on their own line.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::    ">document</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Enclose the whole document.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::   ">enumerate</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Numbered lists.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::    ">eqnarray</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Sequences of aligned equations.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::    ">equation</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Displayed equation.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">figure</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Floating figures.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::   ">flushleft</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Flushed left lines.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">flushright</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Flushed right lines.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">itemize</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Bulleted lists.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">letter</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Letters.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">list</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Generic list environment.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">math</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">In-line math.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::    ">minipage</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Miniature page.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">picture</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::   ">quotation</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Indented environment with paragraph indentation.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">quote</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Indented environment with no paragraph indentation.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">tabbing</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Align text arbitrarily.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">table</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Floating tables.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">tabular</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Align text in columns.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">thebibliography</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Bibliography or reference list.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">theorem</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Theorems, lemmas, etc.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::   ">titlepage</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">For hand crafted title pages.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::    ">verbatim</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Simulating typed input.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">verse</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">For poetry and other things.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="abstract" spaces=" "><nodename>abstract</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">array</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>abstract</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="137">abstract <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="84">abstracts</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para><example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;abstract&rbrace;
...
\end&lbrace;abstract&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.
</para>

</section>
<node name="array" spaces=" "><nodename>array</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">center</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">abstract</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>array</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="138">array <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="85">arrays, math</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;array&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>template</var>&rbrace;
<var>col1 text</var>&amp;<var>col1 text</var>&amp;<var>coln</var>&rbrace;\\
...
\end&lbrace;array&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Math arrays are produced with the <code>array</code> environment, normally
within an <code>equation</code> environment (<pxref label="equation"><xrefnodename>equation</xrefnodename></pxref>).  It has a
single mandatory <var>template</var> argument describing the number of
columns and the alignment within them.  Each column <var>col</var> is
specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should
be formatted, as follows:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">c</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>centered
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">l</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>flush left
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">r</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>flush right
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="139">\\ (for <code>array</code>)</indexterm></findex>
<para>Column entries are separated by <code>&amp;</code>.  Column entries may include
other &latex; commands.  Each row of the array is terminated with
<code>\\</code>.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="140">&arobase;&lbrace;...&rbrace;</indexterm></findex>
<para>In the template, the construct <code>&arobase;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</code> puts <var>text</var>
between columns in each row.
</para>
<para>Here&textrsquo;s an example:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;equation&rbrace;
  \begin&lbrace;array&rbrace;&lbrace;lrc&rbrace;
  left1 &amp; right1 &amp; centered1 \\
  left2 &amp; right2 &amp; centered2 \\
  \end&lbrace;array&rbrace;
\end&lbrace;equation&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="141">\arraycolsep</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\arraycolsep</code> parameter defines half the width of the space
separating columns; the default is <samp>5pt</samp>.  <xref label="tabular"><xrefnodename>tabular</xrefnodename></xref>, for other
parameters which affect formatting in <code>array</code> environments,
namely <code>\arrayrulewidth</code> and <code>\arraystretch</code>.
</para>
<para>The <code>array</code> environment can only be used in math mode.
</para>

</section>
<node name="center" spaces=" "><nodename>center</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">description</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">array</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>center</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="142">center <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="86">centering text, environment for</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;center&rbrace;
<var>line1</var> \\
<var>line2</var> \\
\end&lbrace;center&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="143">\\ (for <code>center</code>)</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>center</code> environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right
margins on the current page.  Each line is terminated with the
string <code>\\</code>.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">\centering</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Declaration form of the <code>center</code> environment.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005ccentering" spaces=" "><nodename>\centering</nodename><nodeup automatic="on">center</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\centering</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="144">\centering</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="87">centering text, declaration for</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\centering</code> declaration corresponds to the <code>center</code>
environment.  This declaration can be used inside an environment such
as <code>quote</code> or in a <code>parbox</code>.  Thus, the text of a figure or
table can be centered on the page by putting a <code>\centering</code>
command at the beginning of the figure or table environment.
</para>
<para>Unlike the <code>center</code> environment, the <code>\centering</code> command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how &latex; formats
paragraph units.  To affect a paragraph unit&textrsquo;s format, the scope of
the declaration must contain the blank line or <code>\end</code> command (of
an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
</para>
<para>Here&textrsquo;s an example:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;quote&rbrace;
\centering
first line \\
second line \\
\end&lbrace;quote&rbrace;
</pre></example>


</subsection>
</section>
<node name="description" spaces=" "><nodename>description</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">displaymath</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">center</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>description</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="145">description <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="88">labelled lists, creating</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="89">description lists, creating</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;description&rbrace;
\item [<var>label1</var>] <var>item1</var>
\item [<var>label2</var>] <var>item2</var>
...
\end&lbrace;description&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="146">\item</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>description</code> environment is used to make labelled lists.  Each
<var>label</var> is typeset in bold, flush right.  The <var>item</var> text may
contain multiple paragraphs.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="90">bold typewriter, avoiding</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="91">typewriter labels in lists</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if
you typeset a label in typewriter using <code>\texttt</code>, you&textrsquo;ll get
bold typewriter: <code>\item[\texttt&lbrace;bold and typewriter&rbrace;]</code>.  This
may be too bold, among other issues.  To get just typewriter, use
<code>\tt</code>, which resets all other style variations: <code>\item[&lbrace;\tt
plain typewriter&rbrace;]</code>.
</para>
<para>For details about list spacing, see <ref label="itemize"><xrefnodename>itemize</xrefnodename></ref>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="displaymath" spaces=" "><nodename>displaymath</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">document</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">description</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>displaymath</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="147">displaymath <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;displaymath&rbrace;
<var>math</var>
\end&lbrace;displaymath&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent> <para>or
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\[<var>math</var>\]
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>displaymath</code> environment (<code>\[...\]</code> is a synonym)
typesets the <var>math</var> text on its own line, centered by default.
The global <code>fleqn</code> option makes equations flush left; see
<ref label="Document-class-options"><xrefnodename>Document class options</xrefnodename></ref>.
</para>
<para>No equation number is added to <code>displaymath</code> text; to get an
equation number, use the <code>equation</code> environment (<pxref label="equation"><xrefnodename>equation</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
<node name="document" spaces=" "><nodename>document</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">enumerate</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">displaymath</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>document</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="148">document <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>document</code> environment encloses the body of a document.
It is required in every &latex; document.  <xref label="Starting-_0026-ending"><xrefnodename>Starting &amp; ending</xrefnodename></xref>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="enumerate" spaces=" "><nodename>enumerate</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">eqnarray</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">document</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>enumerate</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="149">enumerate <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="92">lists of items, numbered</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;enumerate&rbrace;
\item <var>item1</var>
\item <var>item2</var>
...
\end&lbrace;enumerate&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>enumerate</code> environment produces a numbered list.  Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep.  They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as
<code>itemize</code> (<pxref label="itemize"><xrefnodename>itemize</xrefnodename></pxref>) and <code>description</code>
(<pxref label="description"><xrefnodename>description</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="150">\item</indexterm></findex>
<para>Each item of an enumerated list begins with an <code>\item</code> command.
There must be at least one <code>\item</code> command within the environment.
</para>
<para>By default, the numbering at each level is done like this:
</para>
<enumerate first="1" endspaces=" ">
<listitem spaces=" "><para>1., 2., &dots;
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><para>(a), (b), &dots;
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><para>i., ii., &dots;
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><para>A., B., &dots;
</para></listitem></enumerate>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="151">\enumi</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="152">\enumii</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="153">\enumiii</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="154">\enumiv</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>enumerate</code> environment uses the counters <code>\enumi</code>
through <code>\enumiv</code> counters (<pxref label="Counters"><xrefnodename>Counters</xrefnodename></pxref>).  If the optional
argument to <code>\item</code> is given, the counter is not incremented for
that item.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="155">\labelenumi</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="156">\labelenumii</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="157">\labelenumiii</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="158">\labelenumiv</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>enumerate</code> environment uses the commands <code>\labelenumi</code>
through <code>\labelenumiv</code> to produce the default label.  So, you can
use <code>\renewcommand</code> to change the labels (<pxref label="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><xrefnodename>\newcommand &amp;
\renewcommand</xrefnodename></pxref>).  For instance, to have the first level use uppercase
letters:
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="159">\Alph <r>example</r></indexterm></findex>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\renewcommand&lbrace;\labelenumi&rbrace;&lbrace;\Alph&lbrace;enumi&rbrace;&rbrace;
</pre></example>



</section>
<node name="eqnarray" spaces=" "><nodename>eqnarray</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">equation</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">enumerate</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>eqnarray</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="160">eqnarray <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="93">equations, aligning</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="94">aligning equations</indexterm></cindex>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="95">align <r>environment, from <code>amsmath</code></r></indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="96">amsmath <r>package, replacing <code>eqnarray</code></r></indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="97">Madsen, Lars</indexterm></cindex>
<para>First, a caveat: the <code>eqnarray</code> environment has some infelicities
which cannot be overcome; the article &textldquo;Avoid eqnarray!&textrdquo;&noeos; by Lars
Madsen describes them in detail
(<url><urefurl>http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf</urefurl></url>).  The bottom
line is that it is better to use the <code>align</code> environment (and
others) from the <code>amsmath</code> package.
</para>
<para>Nevertheless, here is a description of <code>eqnarray</code>:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;eqnarray&rbrace;  <r>(or <code>eqnarray*</code>)</r>
<var>formula1</var> \\
<var>formula2</var> \\
...
\end&lbrace;eqnarray&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="161">\\ (for <code>eqnarray</code>)</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>eqnarray</code> environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities.  It is very much like a three-column
<code>array</code> environment, with consecutive rows separated by <code>\\</code>
and consecutive items within a row separated by an <code>&amp;</code>.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="162">\\* (for <code>eqnarray</code>)</indexterm></findex>
<para><code>\\*</code> can also be used to separate equations, with its normal
meaning of not allowing a page break at that line.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="163">\nonumber</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="98">equation numbers, omitting</indexterm></cindex>
<para>An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
<code>\nonumber</code> command.  Alternatively, The <code>*</code>-form of the
environment (<code>\begin&lbrace;eqnarray*&rbrace; ... \end&lbrace;eqnarray*&rbrace;</code>) will
omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as
<code>eqnarray</code>.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="164">\lefteqn</indexterm></findex>
<para>The command <code>\lefteqn</code> is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
</para>

</section>
<node name="equation" spaces=" "><nodename>equation</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">figure</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">eqnarray</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>equation</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="165">equation <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="99">equations, environment for</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="100">formulas, environment for</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;equation&rbrace;
<var>math</var>
\end&lbrace;equation&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>equation</code> environment starts a <code>displaymath</code>
environment (<pxref label="displaymath"><xrefnodename>displaymath</xrefnodename></pxref>), e.g., centering the <var>math</var> text
on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin.
</para>

</section>
<node name="figure" spaces=" "><nodename>figure</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">flushleft</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">equation</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>figure</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="166">figure</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="101">inserting figures</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="102">figures, inserting</indexterm></cindex>

<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;figure[*]&rbrace;[<var>placement</var>]
<var>figbody</var>
\label&lbrace;<var>label&rbrace;</var>
\caption[<var>loftitle</var>]&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
\end&lbrace;figure&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are
instead &textldquo;floated&textrdquo; to a convenient place, such as the top of a page.
Figures will not be split between two pages.
</para>
<para>When typesetting in double-columns, the starred form produces a
full-width figure (across both columns).
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="103">placement of floats</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="104">specifier, float placement</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The optional argument <code>[placement]</code> determines where &latex; will try
to place your figure.  There are four places where &latex; can possibly
put a float:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">t</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(Top)&textmdash;at the top of a text page.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">b</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(Bottom)&textmdash;at the bottom of a text page.  However, <code>b</code> is not
allowed for full-width floats (<code>figure*</code>) with double-column
output.  To ameliorate this, use the <code>stfloats</code> or
<code>dblfloatfix</code> package, but see the discussion at caveats in the
FAQ: <url><urefurl>http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat</urefurl></url>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">h</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="105"><code>float</code> package</indexterm></cindex>
<para>(Here)&textmdash;at the position in the text where the figure environment
appears.  However, this is not allowed by itself; <code>t</code> is
automatically added.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="106">here, putting floats</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="107"><code>float</code> package</indexterm></cindex>
<para>To absolutely force a figure to appear &textldquo;here&textrdquo;, you can
<code>\usepackage&lbrace;float&rbrace;</code> and use the <code>H</code> specifier which it
defines.  For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at
<url><urefurl>http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere</urefurl></url>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">p</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(Page of floats)&textmdash;on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">!</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, &latex;
ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear
and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page.
The <code>!</code> specifier does <emph>not</emph> mean &textldquo;put the float here&textrdquo;;
see above.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>The standard report and article classes use the default placement
<code>tbp</code>.
</para>
<para>The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands,
etc.&noeos; you wish.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="167">\caption</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\caption</code> command specifies caption <var>text</var> for the
figure.  The caption is numbered by default.  If <var>loftitle</var> is
present, it is used in the list of figures instead of <var>text</var>
(<pxref label="Tables-of-contents"><xrefnodename>Tables of contents</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<para>Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and
non-float text:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<beforefirstitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="168">\bottomfraction</indexterm></findex>
<para>The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats at
the bottom; default <samp>.3</samp>.
</para>
</beforefirstitem><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="169">\floatpagefraction</indexterm>\floatpagefraction</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats;
default <samp>.5</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="170">\textfraction</indexterm>\textfraction</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too
much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a
different page.  The default is <samp>.2</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="171">\topfraction</indexterm>\topfraction</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before
floats; default <samp>.7</samp>.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<para>Parameters relating to vertical space around floats:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="172">\floatsep</indexterm>\floatsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default
<samp>12pt plus2pt minus2pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="173">\intextsep</indexterm>\intextsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default
<samp>12pt plus2pt minus2pt</samp> for <samp>10pt</samp> and <samp>11pt</samp> styles,
<samp>14pt plus4pt minus4pt</samp> for <samp>12pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="174">\textfloatsep</indexterm>\textfloatsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page;
default <samp>20pt plus2pt minus4pt</samp>.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<para>Parameters relating to the number of floats on a page:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="175">\bottomnumber</indexterm>\bottomnumber</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page;
default 1.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="176">\topnumber</indexterm>\topnumber</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page;
default 2.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="177">\totalnumber</indexterm>\totalnumber</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<para>The principal &tex; FAQ entry relating to floats:
<url><urefurl>http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats</urefurl></url>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="flushleft" spaces=" "><nodename>flushleft</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">flushright</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">figure</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>flushleft</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="178">flushleft <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="108">left-justifying text, environment for</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="109">ragged right text, environment for</indexterm></cindex>

<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;flushleft&rbrace;
<var>line1</var> \\
<var>line2</var> \\
...
\end&lbrace;flushleft&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="179">\\ <r>for <code>flushleft</code></r></indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>flushleft</code> environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged
right Each line must be terminated with the string <code>\\</code>.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\raggedright</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Declaration form of the <code>flushleft</code> environment.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005craggedright" spaces=" "><nodename>\raggedright</nodename><nodeup automatic="on">flushleft</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\raggedright</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="180">\raggedright</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="110">ragged right text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="111">left-justifying text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="112">justification, ragged right</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\raggedright</code> declaration corresponds to the
<code>flushleft</code> environment.  This declaration can be used inside an
environment such as <code>quote</code> or in a <code>parbox</code>.
</para>
<para>Unlike the <code>flushleft</code> environment, the <code>\raggedright</code>
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex;
formats paragraph units.  To affect a paragraph unit&textrsquo;s format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or <code>\end</code>
command that ends the paragraph unit.
</para>

</subsection>
</section>
<node name="flushright" spaces=" "><nodename>flushright</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">itemize</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">flushleft</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>flushright</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="181">flushright <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="113">ragged left text, environment for</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="114">right-justifying text, environment for</indexterm></cindex>

<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;flushright&rbrace;
<var>line1</var> \\
<var>line2</var> \\
...
\end&lbrace;flushright&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="182">\\ (for <code>flushright</code>)</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>flushright</code> environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged
left.  Each line must be terminated with the string <code>\\</code>.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::   ">\raggedleft</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Declaration form of the <code>flushright</code> environment.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005craggedleft" spaces=" "><nodename>\raggedleft</nodename><nodeup automatic="on">flushright</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\raggedleft</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="183">\raggedleft</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="115">ragged left text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="116">justification, ragged left</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="117">right-justifying text</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\raggedleft</code> declaration corresponds to the
<code>flushright</code> environment.  This declaration can be used inside an
environment such as <code>quote</code> or in a <code>parbox</code>.
</para>
<para>Unlike the <code>flushright</code> environment, the <code>\raggedleft</code>
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex;
formats paragraph units.  To affect a paragraph unit&textrsquo;s format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or <code>\end</code>
command that ends the paragraph unit.
</para>

</subsection>
</section>
<node name="itemize" spaces=" "><nodename>itemize</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">letter</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">flushright</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>itemize</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="184">itemize <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="185">\item</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="118">lists of items</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="119">unordered lists</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="120">bulleted lists</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;itemize&rbrace;
\item <var>item1</var>
\item <var>item2</var>
...
\end&lbrace;itemize&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>itemize</code> environment produces an &textldquo;unordered&textrdquo;, &textldquo;bulleted&textrdquo;
list.  Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four
levels deep.  They can also be nested within other paragraph-making
environments, such as <code>enumerate</code> (<pxref label="enumerate"><xrefnodename>enumerate</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<para>Each item of an <code>itemize</code> list begins with an <code>\item</code> command.
There must be at least one <code>\item</code> command within the environment.
</para>
<para>By default, the marks at each level look like this:
</para>
<enumerate first="1" endspaces=" ">
<listitem spaces=" "><para>&bullet; (bullet)
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><para><b>-<w>-</w></b> (bold en-dash)
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><para>* (asterisk)
</para></listitem><listitem spaces=" "><para>. (centered dot, rendered here as a period)
</para></listitem></enumerate>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="186">\labelitemi</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="187">\labelitemii</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="188">\labelitemiii</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="189">\labelitemiv</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>itemize</code> environment uses the commands <code>\labelitemi</code>
through <code>\labelitemiv</code> to produce the default label.  So, you can
use <code>\renewcommand</code> to change the labels.  For instance, to have
the first level use diamonds:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\renewcommand&lbrace;\labelitemi&rbrace;&lbrace;$\diamond$&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="190">\leftmargin</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="191">\leftmargini</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="192">\leftmarginii</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="193">\leftmarginiii</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="194">\leftmarginiv</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="195">\leftmarginv</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="196">\leftmarginvi</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\leftmargini</code> through <code>\leftmarginvi</code> parameters define
the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and
the left margin of the list.  By convention, <code>\leftmargin</code> is set
to the appropriate <code>\leftmargin<var>N</var></code> when a new level of
nesting is entered.
</para>
<para>The defaults vary from <samp>.5em</samp> (highest levels of nesting) to
<samp>2.5em</samp> (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode.
This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\setlength&lbrace;\leftmargini&rbrace;&lbrace;1.25em&rbrace; % default 2.5em
</pre></example>

<!-- c xx should be in its own generic section -->
<para>Some parameters that affect list formatting:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="197">\itemindent</indexterm>\itemindent</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="198">\labelsep</indexterm>\labelsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Space between the label and text of an item; default <samp>.5em</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="199">\labelwidth</indexterm>\labelwidth</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Width of the label; default <samp>2em</samp>, or <samp>1.5em</samp> in two-column mode.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="200">\listparindent</indexterm>\listparindent</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a
list item; default <samp>0pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="201">\rightmargin</indexterm>\rightmargin</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the
enclosing environment; default <samp>0pt</samp>, except in the <code>quote</code>,
<code>quotation</code>, and <code>verse</code> environments, where it is set equal
to <code>\leftmargin</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<para>Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather
loose, by default).
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="202">\itemsep</indexterm>\itemsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Vertical space between items.  The default is <code>2pt plus1pt
minus1pt</code> for <code>10pt</code> documents, <code>3pt plus2pt minus1pt</code> for
<code>11pt</code>, and <code>4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt</code> for <code>12pt</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="203">\parsep</indexterm>\parsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item.  Defaults
are the same as <code>\itemsep</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="204">\topsep</indexterm>\topsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph.
For top-level lists, the default is <code>8pt plus2pt minus4pt</code> for
<code>10pt</code> documents, <code>9pt plus3pt minus5pt</code> for <code>11pt</code>,
and <code>10pt plus4pt minus6pt</code> for <code>12pt</code>.  These are reduced
for nested lists.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="205">\partopsep</indexterm>\partopsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Extra space added to <code>\topsep</code> when the list environment starts a
paragraph.  The default is <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code> for <code>10pt</code>
documents, <code>3pt plus1pt minus1pt</code> for <code>11pt</code>, and <code>3pt
plus2pt minus2pt</code> for <code>12pt</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="206">\parskip <r>example</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
space between items.  Here is an example defining an <code>itemize*</code>
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
within a single item (<code>\parskip</code> is not list-specific,
<pxref label="_005cparskip"><xrefnodename>\parskip</xrefnodename></pxref>):
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\newenvironment&lbrace;itemize*&rbrace;%
  &lbrace;\begin&lbrace;itemize&rbrace;%
    \setlength&lbrace;\itemsep&rbrace;&lbrace;0pt&rbrace;%
    \setlength&lbrace;\parsep&rbrace;&lbrace;0pt&rbrace;&rbrace;%
    \setlength&lbrace;\parskip&rbrace;&lbrace;0pt&rbrace;&rbrace;%
  &lbrace;\end&lbrace;itemize&rbrace;&rbrace;
</pre></example>


</section>
<node name="letter" spaces=" "><nodename>letter</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">list</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">itemize</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>letter</code> environment: writing letters</sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="207">letter</indexterm></findex>

<para>This environment is used for creating letters.  <xref label="Letters"><xrefnodename>Letters</xrefnodename></xref>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="list" spaces=" "><nodename>list</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">math</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">letter</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>list</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="208">list</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="121">lists of items, generic</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>list</code> environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;list&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>labeling</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>spacing</var>&rbrace;
\item <var>item1</var>
\item <var>item2</var>
...
\end&lbrace;list&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The mandatory <var>labeling</var> argument specifies how items should be
labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to <code>\item</code>).
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label.  It can and usually does contain other &latex; commands.
</para>
<para>The mandatory <var>spacing</var> argument contains commands to change the
spacing parameters for the list.  This argument will most often be
empty, i.e., <code>&lbrace;&rbrace;</code>, which leaves the default spacing.
</para>
<para>The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by
<code>\linewidth</code> (<pxref label="Page-layout-parameters"><xrefnodename>Page layout parameters</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
<node name="math" spaces=" "><nodename>math</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">minipage</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">list</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>math</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="209">math <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="122">in-line formulas</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;math&rbrace;
<var>math</var>
\end&lbrace;math&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>math</code> environment inserts the given <var>math</var> within the
running text.  <code>\(...\))</code> and <code>$...$</code> are synonyms.
<xref label="Math-formulas"><xrefnodename>Math formulas</xrefnodename></xref>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="minipage" spaces=" "><nodename>minipage</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">picture</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">math</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>minipage</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="210">minipage <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="123">minipage, creating a</indexterm></cindex>

<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;minipage&rbrace;[<var>position</var>][<var>height</var>][<var>inner-pos</var>]&lbrace;<var>width</var>&rbrace;
<var>text</var>
\end&lbrace;minipage&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>minipage</code> environment typesets its body <var>text</var> in a
block that will not be broken across pages.  This is similar to the
<code>\parbox</code> command (<pxref label="_005cparbox"><xrefnodename>\parbox</xrefnodename></pxref>), but unlike <code>\parbox</code>,
other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage.
</para>
<!-- c (xxref positions) -->
<para>The arguments are the same as for <code>\parbox</code> (<pxref label="_005cparbox"><xrefnodename>\parbox</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="124">indentation of paragraphs, in minipage</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="125">paragraph indentation, in minipage</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="211">\parindent</indexterm></findex>
<para>By default, paragraphs are not indented in the <code>minipage</code>
environment.  You can restore indentation with a command such as
<code>\setlength&lbrace;\parindent&rbrace;&lbrace;1pc&rbrace;</code> command.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="126">footnotes in figures</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="127">figures, footnotes in</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Footnotes in a <code>minipage</code> environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables.  A
<code>\footnote</code> or <code>\footnotetext</code> command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the <code>\mpfootnote</code> counter instead of the ordinary
<code>footnote</code> counter (<pxref label="Counters"><xrefnodename>Counters</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<para>However, don&textrsquo;t put one minipage inside another if you are using
footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
</para>

</section>
<node name="picture" spaces=" "><nodename>picture</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">quotation</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">minipage</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>picture</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="212">picture</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="128">creating pictures</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="129">pictures, creating</indexterm></cindex>

<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;picture&rbrace;(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
&dots; <var>picture commands</var> &dots;
\end&lbrace;picture&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="213">\unitlength</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>picture</code> environment allows you to create just about any
kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.
You tell &latex; where to put things in the picture by specifying
their coordinates.  A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal
point and a minus sign&textmdash;a number like <code>5</code>, <code>0.3</code> or
<code>-3.1416</code>.  A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the
unit length <code>\unitlength</code>, so if <code>\unitlength</code> has been set
to <code>1cm</code>, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54
centimeters.
</para>
<para>You should only change the value of <code>\unitlength</code>, using the
<code>\setlength</code> command, outside of a <code>picture</code> environment.
The default value is <code>1pt</code>.
</para>
<para>A position is a pair of coordinates, such as <code>(2.4,-5)</code>, specifying
the point with x-coordinate <code>2.4</code> and y-coordinate <code>-5</code>.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture.  Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
</para>
<para>The <code>picture</code> environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
<code>position</code>.  It specifies the size of the picture.  The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument&textrsquo;s x- and y-coordinates.
</para>
<para>The <code>picture</code> environment also has an optional <code>position</code>
argument, following the <code>size</code> argument, that can change the
origin.  (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin).  For example, if <code>\unitlength</code>
has been set to <code>1mm</code>, the command
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;picture&rbrace;(100,200)(10,20)
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent> <para>produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200
millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose
upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220).  When you first
draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the
origin at the lower-left corner.  If you then want to modify your
picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate
optional argument.
</para>
<para>The environment&textrsquo;s mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the
picture.  This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is;
&latex; will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even
off the page.  The picture&textrsquo;s nominal size is used by &latex; in determining
how much room to leave for it.
</para>
<para>Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the <code>\put</code>
command. The command
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\put (11.3,-.3)&lbrace;...&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent> <para>puts the object specified by <code>...</code> in the
picture, with its reference point at coordinates <math>(11.3,-.3)</math>.
The reference points for various objects will be described below.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="214">lR box</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\put</code> command creates an <dfn>LR box</dfn>.  You can put anything
that can go in an <code>\mbox</code> (<pxref label="_005cmbox"><xrefnodename>\mbox</xrefnodename></pxref>) in the text argument of
the <code>\put</code> command.  When you do this, the reference point will
be the lower left corner of the box.
</para>
<para>The <code>picture</code> commands are described in the following sections.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::             ">\circle</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a circle.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">\makebox (picture)</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a box of the specified size.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator=":: ">\framebox (picture)</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a box with a frame around it.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\dashbox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a dashed box.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\frame</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a frame around an object.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">\line</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a straight line.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">\linethickness</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Set the line thickness.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\thicklines</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">A heavier line thickness.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">\thinlines</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">The default line thickness.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           ">\multiput</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw multiple instances of an object.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">\oval</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw an ellipse.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                ">\put</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Place an object at a specified place.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\shortstack</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Make a pile of objects.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::             ">\vector</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a line with an arrow.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005ccircle" spaces=" "><nodename>\circle</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\makebox (picture)</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\circle</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="215">\circle</indexterm></findex>

<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\circle[*]&lbrace;<var>diameter</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\circle</code> command produces a circle with a diameter as close
to the specified one as possible.  The <code>*</code>-form of the command
draws a solid circle.
</para>
<para>Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029" spaces=" "><nodename>\makebox (picture)</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\framebox (picture)</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\circle</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\makebox</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="216">\makebox (picture)</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\makebox(width,height)[position]&lbrace;...&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>The <code>\makebox</code> command for the picture environment is similar to
the normal <code>\makebox</code> command except that you must specify a
<code>width</code> and <code>height</code> in multiples of <code>\unitlength</code>.
</para>
<para>The optional argument, <code>[position]</code>, specifies the quadrant that
your text appears in.  You may select up to two of the following:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">t</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Moves the item to the top of the rectangle.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">b</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Moves the item to the bottom.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">l</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Moves the item to the left.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">r</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Moves the item to the right.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para><xref label="_005cmakebox"><xrefnodename>\makebox</xrefnodename></xref>.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029" spaces=" "><nodename>\framebox (picture)</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\dashbox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\makebox (picture)</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\framebox</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="217">\framebox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\framebox(<var>width</var>,<var>height</var>)[<var>pos</var>]&lbrace;...&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\framebox</code> command is like <code>\makebox</code> (see previous
section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box
that it creates.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="218">\fboxrule</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="219">\fboxsep</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\framebox</code> command produces a rule of thickness
<code>\fboxrule</code>, and leaves a space <code>\fboxsep</code> between the rule
and the contents of the box.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cdashbox" spaces=" "><nodename>\dashbox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\frame</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\framebox (picture)</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\dashbox</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="220">\dashbox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Draws a box with a dashed line.  Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\dashbox&lbrace;<var>dlen</var>&rbrace;(<var>rwidth</var>,<var>rheight</var>)[<var>pos</var>]&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para><code>\dashbox</code> creates a dashed rectangle around <var>text</var> in a
<code>picture</code> environment.  Dashes are <var>dlen</var> units long, and the
rectangle has overall width <var>rwidth</var> and height <var>rheight</var>.
The <var>text</var> is positioned at optional <var>pos</var>.  <!-- c xxref positions. -->
</para>
<para>A dashed box looks best when the <code>rwidth</code> and <code>rheight</code> are
multiples of the <code>dlen</code>.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cframe" spaces=" "><nodename>\frame</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\line</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\dashbox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\frame</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="221">\frame</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\frame&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\frame</code> command puts a rectangular frame around <var>text</var>.
The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame.  No extra
space is put between the frame and the object.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cline" spaces=" "><nodename>\line</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\linethickness</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\frame</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\line</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="222">\line</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\line(<var>xslope</var>,<var>yslope</var>)&lbrace;<var>length</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\line</code> command draws a line with the given <var>length</var> and
slope <var>xslope</var>/<var>yslope</var>.
</para>
<para>Standard &latex; can only draw lines with <math><var>slope</var> = x/y</math>,
where <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> have integer values from &minus;6
through&nbsp;6.  For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes,
see the <code>curve2e</code> and many many other packages on CTAN.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005clinethickness" spaces=" "><nodename>\linethickness</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\thicklines</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\line</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\linethickness</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="223">\linethickness</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\linethickness&lbrace;<var>dim</var>&rbrace;</code> command declares the thickness
of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be
<var>dim</var>, which must be a positive length.
</para>
<para><code>\linethickness</code> does not affect the thickness of slanted lines,
circles, or the quarter circles drawn by <code>\oval</code>.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cthicklines" spaces=" "><nodename>\thicklines</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\thinlines</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\linethickness</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\thicklines</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="224">\thicklines</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\thicklines</code> command is an alternate line thickness for
horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment;
cf.&nbsp;<ref label="_005clinethickness"><xrefnodename>\linethickness</xrefnodename></ref> and <ref label="_005cthinlines"><xrefnodename>\thinlines</xrefnodename></ref>.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cthinlines" spaces=" "><nodename>\thinlines</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\multiput</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\thicklines</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\thinlines</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="225">\thinlines</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\thinlines</code> command is the default line thickness for
horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment;
cf.&nbsp;<ref label="_005clinethickness"><xrefnodename>\linethickness</xrefnodename></ref> and <ref label="_005cthicklines"><xrefnodename>\thicklines</xrefnodename></ref>.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cmultiput" spaces=" "><nodename>\multiput</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\oval</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\thinlines</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\multiput</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="226">\multiput</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para><example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\multiput(<var>x</var>,<var>y</var>)(<var>delta_x</var>,<var>delta_y</var>)&lbrace;<var>n</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>obj</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\multiput</code> command copies the object <var>obj</var> in a regular
pattern across a picture.  <var>obj</var> is first placed at position
<math>(x,y)</math>, then at <math>(x+\delta x,y+\delta y)</math>, and so on,
<var>n</var> times.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005coval" spaces=" "><nodename>\oval</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\put</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\multiput</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\oval</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="227">\oval</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\oval(<var>width</var>,<var>height</var>)[<var>portion</var>]
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\oval</code> command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.
The optional argument <var>portion</var> allows you to select part of the
oval via the following:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">t</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>selects the top portion;
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">b</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>selects the bottom portion;
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">r</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>selects the right portion;
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">l</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>selects the left portion.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>The &textldquo;corners&textrdquo; of the oval are made with quarter circles with a
maximum radius of 20<dmn>pt</dmn>, so large &textldquo;ovals&textrdquo; will look more like
boxes with rounded corners.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cput" spaces=" "><nodename>\put</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\shortstack</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\oval</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\put</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="228">\put</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\put(x coord,y coord)&lbrace; ...  &rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>The <code>\put</code> command places the item specified by the mandatory
argument at the given coordinates.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cshortstack" spaces=" "><nodename>\shortstack</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\vector</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\put</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\shortstack</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="229">\shortstack</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\shortstack[<var>position</var>]&lbrace;...\\...\\...&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\shortstack</code> command produces a stack of objects.  The valid
positions are:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">r</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Move the objects to the right of the stack.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">l</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Move the objects to the left of the stack
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">c</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default)
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="230">\\ <r>(for <code>\shortstack</code> objects)</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>Objects are separated with <code>\\</code>.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cvector" spaces=" "><nodename>\vector</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\shortstack</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">picture</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\vector</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="231">\vector</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\vector(<var>x-slope</var>,<var>y-slope</var>)&lbrace;<var>length</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\vector</code> command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
length and slope.  The <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> values must lie between
&minus;4 and +4, inclusive.
</para>

</subsection>
</section>
<node name="quotation" spaces=" "><nodename>quotation</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">quote</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">picture</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>quotation</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="232">quotation</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="130">quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="131">displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="132">paragraph indentations in quoted text</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;quotation&rbrace;
<var>text</var>
\end&lbrace;quotation&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The margins of the <code>quotation</code> environment are indented on both
the left and the right.  The text is justified at both margins.
Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
</para>
<para>Unlike the <code>quote</code> environment, each paragraph is indented
normally.
</para>

</section>
<node name="quote" spaces=" "><nodename>quote</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">tabbing</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">quotation</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>quote</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="233">quote</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="133">quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="134">displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="135">paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Snyopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;quote&rbrace;
<var>text</var>
\end&lbrace;quote&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The margins of the <code>quote</code> environment are indented on both the
left and the right.  The text is justified at both margins.  Leaving a
blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
</para>
<para>Unlike the <code>quotation</code> environment, paragraphs are not indented.
</para>

</section>
<node name="tabbing" spaces=" "><nodename>tabbing</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">table</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">quote</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>tabbing</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="234">tabbing <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="136">tab stops, using</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="137">lining text up using tab stops</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="138">alignment via tabbing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;tabbing&rbrace;
<var>row1col1</var> \= <var>row1col2</var> \= <var>row1col3</var> \= <var>row1col4</var> \\
<var>row2col1</var> \&gt;                \&gt; <var>row2col3</var> \\
...
\end&lbrace;tabbing&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>tabbing</code> environment provides a way to align text in
columns.  It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as
was done on an ordinary typewriter.  It is best suited for cases where
the width of each column is constant and known in advance.
</para>
<para>This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the <code>tabular</code>
environment.
</para>
<para>The following commands can be used inside a <code>tabbing</code> enviroment:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="235">\\ <r>(tabbing)</r></indexterm>\\ <r>(tabbing)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>End a line.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="236">\= <r>(tabbing)</r></indexterm>\= <r>(tabbing)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Sets a tab stop at the current position.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="237">\&gt; <r>(tabbing)</r></indexterm>\&gt; <r>(tabbing)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="238">\&gt;</indexterm></findex>
<para>Advances to the next tab stop.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="239">\&lt;</indexterm>\&lt;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing
the margin).  Can only be used at the start of the line.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="240">\+</indexterm>\+</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Moves the left margin of the next and all the
following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if
necessary.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="241">\-</indexterm>\-</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Moves the left margin of the next and all the
following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if
necessary.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="242">\&textrsquo; <r>(tabbing)</r></indexterm>\' <r>(tabbing)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Moves everything that you have typed so far in the
current column, i.e. everything from the most recent <code>\&gt;</code>,
<code>\&lt;</code>, <code>\'</code>, <code>\\</code>, or <code>\kill</code> command, to the right
of the previous column, flush against the current column&textrsquo;s tab stop.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="243">\&textlsquo; <r>(tabbing)</r></indexterm>\` <r>(tabbing)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab
stop&nbsp;0.  However, it can&textrsquo;t move text to the right of the last column
because there&textrsquo;s no tab stop there.  The <code>\`</code> command moves all the
text that follows it, up to the <code>\\</code> or <code>\end&lbrace;tabbing&rbrace;</code>
command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing
environment.  There must be no <code>\&gt;</code> or <code>\'</code> command between
the <code>\`</code> and the command that ends the line.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="244">\a <r>(tabbing)</r></indexterm>\a <r>(tabbing)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="245">\a&textrsquo; <r>(acute accent in tabbing)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="246">\a&textlsquo; <r>(grave accent in tabbing)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="247">\a= <r>(macron accent in tabbing)</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>In a <code>tabbing</code> environment, the commands <code>\=</code>, <code>\'</code> and
<code>\`</code> do not produce accents as usual (<pxref label="Accents"><xrefnodename>Accents</xrefnodename></pxref>).  Instead,
the commands <code>\a=</code>, <code>\a'</code> and <code>\a`</code> are used.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="248">\kill</indexterm>\kill</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Sets tab stops without producing text.  Works just like <code>\\</code>
except that it throws away the current line instead of producing
output for it.  The effect of any <code>\=</code>, <code>\+</code> or <code>\-</code>
commands in that line remain in effect.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="249">\poptabs</indexterm>\poptabs</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="250">\poptabs</indexterm></findex>
<para>Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last <code>\pushtabs</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="251">\pushtabs</indexterm>\pushtabs</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing
tab stop positions in the middle of a <code>tabbing</code> environment.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="252">\tabbingsep</indexterm>\tabbingsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Distance to left of tab stop moved by <code>\'</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<para>This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;tabbing&rbrace;
function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
         \&gt; begin \= \+ \\
               \&gt; if \= n $&gt;$ 1 then \+ \\
                        fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
                  else \+ \\
                        fact := 1; \-\- \\
            end;\\
\end&lbrace;tabbing&rbrace;
</pre></example>


</section>
<node name="table" spaces=" "><nodename>table</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">tabular</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">tabbing</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>table</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="253">table</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="139">tables, creating</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="140">creating tables</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve"> \begin&lbrace;table&rbrace;[placement]

  body of the table

 \caption&lbrace;table title&rbrace;
 \end&lbrace;table&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are
usually &textldquo;floated&textrdquo; to a convenient place, like the top of a page.
Tables will not be split between two pages.
</para>
<para>The optional argument <code>[placement]</code> determines where &latex; will try
to place your table.  There are four places where &latex; can possibly put
a float; these are the same as that used with the <code>figure</code>
environment, and described there (<pxref label="figure"><xrefnodename>figure</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<para>The standard <code>report</code> and <code>article</code> classes use the default
placement <code>[tbp]</code>.
</para>
<para>The body of the table is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc.,
you wish.  The <code>\caption</code> command allows you to title your table.
</para>

</section>
<node name="tabular" spaces=" "><nodename>tabular</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">thebibliography</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">table</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>tabular</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="254">tabular <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="141">lines in tables</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="142">lining text up in tables</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;tabular&rbrace;[pos]&lbrace;cols&rbrace;
column 1 entry &amp; column 2 entry ... &amp; column n entry \\
...
\end&lbrace;tabular&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent>
<para>or
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;tabular*&rbrace;&lbrace;width&rbrace;[pos]&lbrace;cols&rbrace;
column 1 entry &amp; column 2 entry ... &amp; column n entry \\
...
\end&lbrace;tabular*&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of
items, aligned vertically in columns.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="255">\\ <r>for <code>tabular</code></r></indexterm></findex>
<para><code>\\</code> must be used to specify the end of each row of the table,
except for the last, where it is optional&textmdash;unless an <code>\hline</code>
command (to put a rule below the table) follows.
</para>
<para>The mandatory and optional arguments consist of:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">width</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Specifies the width of the <code>tabular*</code> environment.  There must be
rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified
width.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">pos</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of
the environment.
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">t</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>align on top row
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">b</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>align on bottom row
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">cols</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Specifies the column formatting.  It consists of a sequence of the
following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and
intercolumn material.
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">l</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>A column of left-aligned items.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">r</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>A column of right-aligned items.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">c</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>A column of centered items.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">|</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">&arobase;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>This inserts <var>text</var> in every row.  An &arobase;-expression suppresses the
intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space
before the adjacent item must be included in <var>text</var>.
</para>
<para>To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given
column, you have to load the <code>array</code> package and use the
<code>&gt;&lbrace;...&rbrace;</code> specifier.
<!-- c xx should fully explain array, tabularx, and all other base packages... -->
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="256">\extracolsep</indexterm></findex>
<para>An <code>\extracolsep&lbrace;wd&rbrace;</code> command in an &arobase;-expression causes an
extra space of width <code>wd</code> to appear to the left of all subsequent
columns, until countermanded by another <code>\extracolsep</code> command.
Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed
by an &arobase;-expression.  An <code>\extracolsep</code> command can be used only
in an &arobase;-expression in the <code>cols</code> argument.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">p&lbrace;<var>wd</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width
<var>wd</var>, as if it were the argument of a
<code>\parbox[t]&lbrace;<var>wd</var>&rbrace;</code> command.  However, a <code>\\</code> may not
appear in the item, except in the following situations:
</para>
<enumerate first="1" endspaces=" ">
<listitem>
<para>inside an environment like <code>minipage</code>, <code>array</code>, or <code>tabular</code>.
</para></listitem><listitem>
<para>inside an explicit <code>\parbox</code>.
</para></listitem><listitem>
<para>in the scope of a <code>\centering</code>, <code>\raggedright</code>, or <code>\raggedleft</code>
declaration.  The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an
environment when used in a <code>p</code>-column element.
</para></listitem></enumerate>

</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">*&lbrace;<var>num</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>cols</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Equivalent to <var>num</var> copies of <var>cols</var>, where <var>num</var> is a
positive integer and <var>cols</var> is any list of column-specifiers,
which may contain another <code>*-expression</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>Parameters that control formatting:
<!-- c xx defaults, own node (xref from array)? -->
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="257">\arrayrulewidth</indexterm>\arrayrulewidth</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Thickness of the rule created by <code>|</code>, <code>\hline</code>, and
<code>\vline</code> in the <code>tabular</code> and <code>array</code> environments; the
default is <samp>.4pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="258">\arraystretch</indexterm>\arraystretch</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Scaling of spacing between rows in the <code>tabular</code> and <code>array</code>
environments; default is <samp>1</samp>, for no scaling.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="259">\doublerulesep</indexterm>\doublerulesep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by <code>||</code>
in the <code>tabular</code> and <code>array</code> environments; default is <samp>2pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="260">\tabcolsep</indexterm>\tabcolsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Half the width of the space between columns; default is <samp>6pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<para>The following commands can be used inside a <code>tabular</code>
environment:
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\multicolumn</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Make an item spanning several columns.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\cline</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\hline</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\vline</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Draw a vertical line.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005cmulticolumn" spaces=" "><nodename>\multicolumn</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\cline</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">tabular</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\multicolumn</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="261">\multicolumn</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para><example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\multicolumn&lbrace;<var>cols</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>pos</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\multicolumn</code> command makes an entry that spans several
columns.  The first mandatory argument, <var>cols</var>, specifies the
number of columns to span.  The second mandatory argument, <var>pos</var>,
specifies the formatting of the entry; <code>c</code> for centered, <code>l</code>
for flushleft, <code>r</code> for flushright.  The third mandatory argument,
<var>text</var>, specifies what text to put in the entry.
</para>
<para>Here&textrsquo;s an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash;
<code>\multicolumn</code> is used for the heading:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;tabular&rbrace;&lbrace;r&arobase;&lbrace;--&rbrace;l&rbrace;
\multicolumn&lbrace;2&rbrace;&lbrace;c&rbrace;&lbrace;\bf Unicode&rbrace;\cr
   0x80&amp;0x7FF   \cr
  0x800&amp;0xFFFF  \cr
0x10000&amp;0x1FFFF \cr
\end&lbrace;tabular&rbrace;
</pre></example>


</subsection>
<node name="_005ccline" spaces=" "><nodename>\cline</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\hline</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\multicolumn</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">tabular</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\cline</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="262">\cline</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\cline&lbrace;<var>i</var>-<var>j</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\cline</code> command draws horizontal lines across the columns
specified, beginning in column <var>i</var> and ending in column <var>j</var>,
which are specified in the mandatory argument.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005chline" spaces=" "><nodename>\hline</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\vline</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\cline</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">tabular</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\hline</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="263">\hline</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\hline</code> command draws a horizontal line the width of the
enclosing <code>tabular</code> or <code>array</code> environment.  It&textrsquo;s most
commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows
of a table.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cvline" spaces=" "><nodename>\vline</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\hline</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">tabular</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\vline</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="264">\vline</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\vline</code> command will draw a vertical line extending the full
height and depth of its row.  An <code>\hfill</code> command can be used to
move the line to the edge of the column.  It can also be used in an
&arobase;-expression.
</para>

</subsection>
</section>
<node name="thebibliography" spaces=" "><nodename>thebibliography</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">theorem</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">tabular</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>thebibliography</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="265">thebibliography</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="143">bibliography, creating (manually)</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;thebibliography&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>widest-label</var>&rbrace;
\bibitem[<var>label</var>]&lbrace;<var>cite_key&rbrace;</var>
...
\end&lbrace;thebibliography&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>thebibliography</code> environment produces a bibliography or
reference list.
</para>
<para>In the <code>article</code> class, this reference list is labelled
&textldquo;References&textrdquo;; in the <code>report</code> class, it is labelled
&textldquo;Bibliography&textrdquo;.  You can change the label (in the standard classes)
by redefining the command <code>\refname</code>.  For instance, this
eliminates it entirely:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\renewcommand&lbrace;\refname&rbrace;&lbrace;&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The mandatory <var>widest-label</var> argument is text that, when typeset,
is as wide as the widest item label produced by the <code>\bibitem</code>
commands.  It is typically given as <code>9</code> for bibliographies with
less than 10 references, <code>99</code> for ones with less than 100, etc.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\bibitem</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Specify a bibliography item.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">\cite</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Refer to a bibliography item.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::             ">\nocite</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Include an item in the bibliography.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">Using BibTeX</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Automatic generation of bibliographies.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005cbibitem" spaces=" "><nodename>\bibitem</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\cite</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">thebibliography</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\bibitem</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="266">\bibitem</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para><example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\bibitem[<var>label</var>]&lbrace;<var>cite_key</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\bibitem</code> command generates an entry labelled by
<var>label</var>.  If the <var>label</var> argument is missing, a number is
automatically generated using the <code>enumi</code> counter.  The
<var>cite_key</var> is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation
symbols not containing a comma.
</para>
<para>This command writes an entry to the <file>.aux</file> file containing the
item&textrsquo;s <var>cite_key</var> and label.  When the <file>.aux</file> file is read by
the <code>\begin&lbrace;document&rbrace;</code> command, the item&textrsquo;s <code>label</code> is
associated with <code>cite_key</code>, causing references to <var>cite_key</var>
with a <code>\cite</code> command (see next section) to produce the
associated label.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005ccite" spaces=" "><nodename>\cite</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\nocite</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\bibitem</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">thebibliography</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\cite</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="267">\cite</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\cite[<var>subcite</var>]&lbrace;<var>keys</var>
</pre></example>

<para>The <var>keys</var> argument is a list of one or more citation keys,
separated by commas.  This command generates an in-text citation to
the references associated with <var>keys</var> by entries in the
<file>.aux</file> file.
</para>
<para>The text of the optional <var>subcite</var> argument appears after the
citation.  For example, <code>\cite[p.~314]&lbrace;knuth&rbrace;</code> might produce
&textlsquo;[Knuth, p.&nbsp;314]&textrsquo;.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="_005cnocite" spaces=" "><nodename>\nocite</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Using BibTeX</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\cite</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">thebibliography</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\nocite</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="268">\nocite</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\nocite&lbrace;key_list&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>The <code>\nocite</code> command produces no text, but writes <code>key_list</code>,
which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the <file>.aux</file> file.
</para>

</subsection>
<node name="Using-BibTeX" spaces=" "><nodename>Using BibTeX</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\nocite</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">thebibliography</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Using Bib&tex;</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="144">using Bib&tex;</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="145">bib&tex;, using</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="146">bibliography, creating (automatically)</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="269">\bibliographystyle</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="270">\bibliography</indexterm></findex>

<para>If you use the Bib&tex; program by Oren Patashnik (highly
recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of
titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don&textrsquo;t use the
<code>thebibliography</code> environment (<pxref label="thebibliography"><xrefnodename>thebibliography</xrefnodename></pxref>). Instead,
you include the lines
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\bibliographystyle&lbrace;<var>bibstyle</var>&rbrace;
\bibliography&lbrace;<var>bibfile1</var>,<var>bibfile2</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\bibliographystyle</code> command does not produce any output of
its own.  Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will
be produced: <var>bibstyle</var> refers to a file
<var>bibstyle</var><file>.bst</file>, which defines how your citations will look.
The standard <var>style</var> names distributed with Bib&tex; are:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">alpha</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of
publication.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">plain</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">unsrt</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Like <code>plain</code>, but entries are in order of citation.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">abbrv</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Like <code>plain</code>, but more compact labels.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>In addition, numerous other Bib&tex; style files exist tailored to
the demands of various publications.  See
<url><urefurl>http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib</urefurl></url>.
</para>
<para>The <code>\bibliography</code> command is what actually produces the
bibliography.  The argument to <code>\bibliography</code> refers to files
named <file><var>bibfile</var>.bib</file>, which should contain your database in
Bib&tex; format.  Only the entries referred to via <code>\cite</code> and
<code>\nocite</code> will be listed in the bibliography.
</para>

</subsection>
</section>
<node name="theorem" spaces=" "><nodename>theorem</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">titlepage</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">thebibliography</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>theorem</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="271">theorem <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="147">theorems, typesetting</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;theorem&rbrace;
<var>theorem-text</var>
\end&lbrace;theorem&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>theorem</code> environment produces &textldquo;Theorem <var>n</var>&textrdquo; in
boldface followed by <var>theorem-text</var>, where the numbering
possibilities for <var>n</var> are described under <code>\newtheorem</code>
(<pxref label="_005cnewtheorem"><xrefnodename>\newtheorem</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
<node name="titlepage" spaces=" "><nodename>titlepage</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">verbatim</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">theorem</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>titlepage</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="272">titlepage <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="148">making a title page</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="149">title pages, creating</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;titlepage&rbrace;
<var>text</var>
\end&lbrace;titlepage&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>titlepage</code> environment creates a title page, i.e., a page
with no printed page number or heading.  It also causes the following
page to be numbered page one.  Formatting the title page is left to
you.  The <code>\today</code> command may be useful on title pages
(<pxref label="_005ctoday"><xrefnodename>\today</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<para>You can use the <code>\maketitle</code> command (<pxref label="_005cmaketitle"><xrefnodename>\maketitle</xrefnodename></pxref>) to
produce a standard title page without a <code>titlepage</code> environment.
</para>

</section>
<node name="verbatim" spaces=" "><nodename>verbatim</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">verse</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">titlepage</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>verbatim</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="273">verbatim <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="150">verbatim text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="151">simulating typed text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="152">typed text, simulating</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="153">code, typesetting</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="154">computer programs, typesetting</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;verbatim&rbrace;
<var>literal-text</var>
\end&lbrace;verbatim&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>verbatim</code> environment is a paragraph-making environment in
which &latex; produces exactly what you type in; for instance the
<code>\</code> character produces a printed <samp>\</samp>.  It turns &latex;
into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same
effect that they would on a typewriter.
</para>
<para>The <code>verbatim</code> uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (<code>\tt</code>).
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">\verb</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">The macro form of the <code>verbatim</code> environment.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>

<node name="_005cverb" spaces=" "><nodename>\verb</nodename><nodeup automatic="on">verbatim</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\verb</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="274">\verb</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="155">verbatim text, inline</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\verb<var>char</var><var>literal-text</var><var>char</var>
\verb*<var>char</var><var>literal-text</var><var>char</var>
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\verb</code> command typesets <var>literal-text</var> as it is input,
including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter
(<code>\tt</code>) font.  No spaces are allowed between <code>\verb</code> or
<code>\verb*</code> and the delimiter <var>char</var>, which begins and ends the
verbatim text.  The delimiter must not appear in <var>literal-text</var>.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="156">visible space</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>*</code>-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a
&textldquo;visible space&textrdquo; character.
<tex endspaces=" ">
(Namely, {\tt\char&textlsquo;\ }.)
</tex>
</para>

</subsection>
</section>
<node name="verse" spaces=" "><nodename>verse</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">verbatim</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Environments</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>verse</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="275">verse <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="157">poetry, an environment for</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\begin&lbrace;verse&rbrace;
<var>line1</var> \\
<var>line2</var> \\
...
\end&lbrace;verse&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>verse</code> environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
other uses for it.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="276">\\ <r>for <code>verse</code></r></indexterm></findex>
<para>The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not
indented, and the text is not justified.  Separate the lines of each
stanza with <code>\\</code>, and use one or more blank lines to separate the
stanzas.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Line-breaking" spaces=" "><nodename>Line breaking</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Page breaking</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Environments</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Line breaking</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="158">line breaking</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="159">breaking lines</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The first thing &latex; does when processing ordinary text is to
translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces.  To
produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines
(and these lines must be broken into pages).
</para>
<para>&latex; usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in
some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the
<code>\\</code> command, and you can always manually force breaks.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                         ">\\</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Start a new line.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">\obeycr &amp; \restorecr</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Make each input line start a new output line.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                   ">\newline</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Break the line
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           ">\- (hyphenation)</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Insert explicit hyphenation.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                     ">\fussy</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Be fussy about line breaking.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                    ">\sloppy</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Be sloppy about line breaking.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">\hyphenation</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Tell &latex; how to hyphenate a word.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">\linebreak &amp; \nolinebreak</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Forcing &amp; avoiding line breaks.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005c_005c" spaces=" "><nodename>\\</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\obeycr &amp; \restorecr</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\\</code>[*][<var>morespace</var>]</sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="277">\\ <r>force line break</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="160">new line, starting</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="161">line break, forcing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\\</code> command tells &latex; to start a new line.  It has an
optional argument, <var>morespace</var>, that specifies how much extra
vertical space is to be inserted before the next line.  This can be a
negative amount.
</para>
<para>The <code>\\*</code> command is the same as the ordinary <code>\\</code> command
except that it tells &latex; not to start a new page after the line.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr" spaces=" "><nodename>\obeycr &amp; \restorecr</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\newline</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\\</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\obeycr</code> &amp; <code>\restorecr</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="278">\obeycr</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="279">\restorecr</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="162">new line, output as input</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\obeycr</code> command makes a return in the input file
(<samp>^^M</samp>, internally) the same as <code>\\</code> (followed by
<code>\relax</code>).  So each new line in the input will also be a new line
in the output.
</para>
<para><code>\restorecr</code> restores normal line-breaking behavior.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cnewline" spaces=" "><nodename>\newline</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\- (hyphenation)</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\obeycr &amp; \restorecr</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newline</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="280">\newline</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="163">new line, starting (paragraph mode)</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\newline</code> command breaks the line at the present point, with
no stretching of the text before it.  It can only be used in paragraph
mode.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029" spaces=" "><nodename>\- (hyphenation)</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\fussy</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\newline</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\-</code> (discretionary hyphen)</sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="281">\- <r>(hyphenation)</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="164">hyphenation, forcing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\-</code> command tells &latex; that it may hyphenate the word at
that point.  &latex; is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually
find most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an
incorrect one.  The <code>\-</code> command is used for the exceptional
cases.
</para>
<para>When you insert <code>\-</code> commands in a word, the word will only be
hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points
that &latex; might otherwise have chosen.
</para>


</section>
<node name="_005cfussy" spaces=" "><nodename>\fussy</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\sloppy</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\- (hyphenation)</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\fussy</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="282">\fussy</indexterm></findex>

<para>The declaration <code>\fussy</code> (which is the default) makes &tex;
picky about line breaking.  This usually avoids too much space between
words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box.
</para>
<para>This command cancels the effect of a previous <code>\sloppy</code> command
(<pxref label="_005csloppy"><xrefnodename>\sloppy</xrefnodename></pxref>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005csloppy" spaces=" "><nodename>\sloppy</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\hyphenation</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\fussy</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\sloppy</code></sectiontitle>

<para>The declaration <code>\sloppy</code> makes &tex; less fussy about line
breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose
interword spacing.
</para>
<para>Lasts until a <code>\fussy</code> command is issued (<pxref label="_005cfussy"><xrefnodename>\fussy</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005chyphenation" spaces=" "><nodename>\hyphenation</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\linebreak &amp; \nolinebreak</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\sloppy</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\hyphenation</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="283">\hyphenation</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="165">hyphenation, defining</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\hyphenation&lbrace;<var>word-one</var> <var>word-two</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\hyphenation</code> command declares allowed hyphenation points
with a <code>-</code> character in the given words.  The words are separated
by spaces.  &tex; will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no
inflections are tried.  Multiple <code>\hyphenation</code> commands
accumulate.  Some examples (the default &tex; hyphenation patterns
misses the hyphenations in these words):
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\hyphenation&lbrace;ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases&rbrace;
</pre></example>


</section>
<node name="_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak" spaces=" "><nodename>\linebreak &amp; \nolinebreak</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\hyphenation</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\linebreak</code> &amp; <code>\nolinebreak</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="284">\linebreak</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="285">\nolinebreak</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="166">line breaks, forcing</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="167">line breaks, preventing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopses:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\linebreak[<var>priority</var>]
\nolinebreak[<var>priority</var>]
</pre></example>

<para>By default, the <code>\linebreak</code> (<code>\nolinebreak</code>) command forces
(prevents) a line break at the current position.  For
<code>\linebreak</code>, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it
extends to the right margin as usual.
</para>
<para>With the optional argument <var>priority</var>, you can convert the command
from a demand to a request.  The <var>priority</var> must be a number from
0 to&nbsp;4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Page-breaking" spaces=" "><nodename>Page breaking</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Footnotes</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Line breaking</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Page breaking</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="168">page breaking</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="169">breaking pages</indexterm></cindex>

<para>&latex; starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has
accumulated to fill up a page.  Usually this happens automatically,
but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           ">\cleardoublepage</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Start a new right-hand page.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                 ">\clearpage</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Start a new page.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                   ">\newpage</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Start a new page.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           ">\enlargethispage</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Enlarge the current page a bit.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Forcing &amp; avoiding page breaks.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005ccleardoublepage" spaces=" "><nodename>\cleardoublepage</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\clearpage</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Page breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\cleardoublepage</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="286">\cleardoublepage</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="170">starting on a right-hand page</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\cleardoublepage</code> command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand
(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cclearpage" spaces=" "><nodename>\clearpage</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\newpage</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\cleardoublepage</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Page breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\clearpage</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="287">\clearpage</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="171">flushing floats and starting a page</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="172">starting a new page and clearing floats</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\clearpage</code> command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cnewpage" spaces=" "><nodename>\newpage</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\enlargethispage</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\clearpage</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Page breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newpage</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="288">\newpage</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="173">new page, starting</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="174">starting a new page</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\newpage</code> command ends the current page, but does not clear
floats (see <code>\clearpage</code> above).
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cenlargethispage" spaces=" "><nodename>\enlargethispage</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\newpage</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Page breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\enlargethispage</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="289">\enlargethispage</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="175">enlarge current page</indexterm></cindex>

<para><code>\enlargethispage&lbrace;size&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para><code>\enlargethispage*&lbrace;size&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>Enlarge the <code>\textheight</code> for the current page by the specified
amount; e.g. <code>\enlargethispage&lbrace;\baselineskip&rbrace;</code> will allow one
additional line.
</para>
<para>The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as
much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit
<code>\pagebreak</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak" spaces=" "><nodename>\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\enlargethispage</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Page breaking</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\pagebreak</code> &amp; <code>\nopagebreak</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="290">\pagebreak</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="291">\nopagebreak</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="176">page break, forcing</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="177">page break, preventing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopses:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\pagebreak[<var>priority</var>]
\nopagebreak[<var>priority</var>]
</pre></example>

<para>By default, the <code>\pagebreak</code> (<code>\nopagebreak</code>) command forces
(prevents) a page break at the current position.  With
<code>\pagebreak</code>, the vertical space on the page is stretched out
where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin.
</para>
<para>With the optional argument <var>priority</var>, you can convert the
<code>\pagebreak</code> command from a demand to a request.  The number must
be a number from 0 to&nbsp;4.  The higher the number, the more
insistent the request is.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Footnotes" spaces=" "><nodename>Footnotes</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Definitions</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Page breaking</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Footnotes</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="178">footnotes, creating</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways.  They can be produced
with one command, the <code>\footnote</code> command.  They can also be
produced with two commands, the <code>\footnotemark</code> and the
<code>\footnotetext</code> commands.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           ">\footnote</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Insert a footnote.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">\footnotemark</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Insert footnote mark only.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">\footnotetext</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Insert footnote text only.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">Symbolic footnotes</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Using symbols instead of numbers for footnotes.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator=":: ">Footnote parameters</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Parameters for footnote formatting.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005cfootnote" spaces=" "><nodename>\footnote</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\footnotemark</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Footnotes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\footnote</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="292">\footnote</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\footnote[<var>number</var>]&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\footnote</code> command places the numbered footnote <var>text</var>
at the bottom of the current page.  The optional argument <var>number</var>
changes the default footnote number.
</para>
<para>This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you
cannot use it in sectioning commands like <code>\chapter</code>, in figures,
tables or in a <code>tabular</code> environment.  (See following sections.)
<!-- c xx mention packages that fix this -->
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cfootnotemark" spaces=" "><nodename>\footnotemark</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\footnotetext</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\footnote</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Footnotes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\footnotemark</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="293">\footnotemark</indexterm></findex>

<para>With no optional argument, the <code>\footnotemark</code> command puts the
current footnote number in the text.  This command can be used in
inner paragraph mode.  You give the text of the footnote separately,
with the <code>\footnotetext</code> command.
</para>
<para>This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote
markers referring to the same footnote with
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\footnotemark[\value&lbrace;footnote&rbrace;]
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent>
<para>after the first <code>\footnote</code> command.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cfootnotetext" spaces=" "><nodename>\footnotetext</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Symbolic footnotes</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\footnotemark</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Footnotes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\footnotetext</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="294">\footnotetext</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\footnotetext[<var>number</var>]&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\footnotetext</code> command places <var>text</var> at the bottom of
the page as a footnote.  This command can come anywhere after the
<code>\footnotemark</code> command.  The <code>\footnotetext</code> command must
appear in outer paragraph mode.
</para>
<para>The optional argument <var>number</var> changes the default footnote number.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Symbolic-footnotes" spaces=" "><nodename>Symbolic footnotes</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Footnote parameters</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\footnotetext</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Footnotes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Symbolic footnotes</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="179">footnotes, symbolic instead of numbered</indexterm></cindex>
<para>If you want to use symbols for footnotes, rather than increasing
numbers, redefine <code>\thefootnote</code> like this:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\renewcommand&lbrace;\thefootnote&rbrace;&lbrace;\fnsymbol&lbrace;footnote&rbrace;&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="295">\fnsymbol<r>, and footnotes</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="296">\&arobase;fnsymbol</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\fnsymbol</code> command produces a predefined series of symbols
(<pxref label="_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol"><xrefnodename>\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</xrefnodename></pxref>).  If you want to
use a different symbol as your footnote mark, you&textrsquo;ll need to also
redefine <code>\&arobase;fnsymbol</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Footnote-parameters" spaces=" "><nodename>Footnote parameters</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">Symbolic footnotes</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Footnotes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Footnote parameters</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="180">footnote parameters</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="181">parameters, for footnotes</indexterm></cindex>

<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="297">\footnoterule</indexterm>\footnoterule</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page&textrsquo;s
footnotes.  Default dimensions: <code>0.4pt</code> thick (or wide), and
<code>0.4\columnwidth</code> long in the standard document classes (except
slides, where it does not appear).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="298">\footnotesep</indexterm>\footnotesep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote.  By
default, this is set to the normal strut for <code>\footnotesize</code>
fonts (<pxref label="Font-sizes"><xrefnodename>Font sizes</xrefnodename></pxref>), therefore there is no extra space between
footnotes.  This is <samp>6.65pt</samp> for <samp>10pt</samp>, <samp>7.7pt</samp> for
<samp>11pt</samp>, and <samp>8.4pt</samp> for <samp>12pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Definitions" spaces=" "><nodename>Definitions</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Counters</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Footnotes</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Definitions</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="182">definitions</indexterm></cindex>

<para>&latex; has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
</para>
<!-- c xx everything in this chapter needs examples. -->

<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">(Re)define a new command.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                         ">\newcounter</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Define a new counter.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                          ">\newlength</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Define a new length.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                         ">\newsavebox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Define a new box.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator=":: ">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Define a new environment.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                         ">\newtheorem</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Define a new theorem-like environment.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                            ">\newfont</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Define a new font name.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                            ">\protect</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Using tricky commands.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand" spaces=" "><nodename>\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\newcounter</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Definitions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newcommand</code> &amp; <code>\renewcommand</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="299">\newcommand</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="183">commands, defining new ones</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="184">defining a new command</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="185">new commands, defining</indexterm></cindex>

<para><code>\newcommand</code> and <code>\renewcommand</code> define and redefine a
command, respectively.  Synopses:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">  \newcommand[*]&lbrace;<var>cmd</var>&rbrace;[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optarg</var>]&lbrace;<var>defn</var>&rbrace;
\renewcommand[*]&lbrace;<var>cmd</var>&rbrace;[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optarg</var>]&lbrace;<var>defn</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<table commandarg="var" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var"><code>*</code></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="186">*-form of defining new commands</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The *-form of these commands requires that the arguments not contain
multiple paragraphs of text (not <code>\long</code>, in plain &tex; terms).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">cmd</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The command name beginning with <code>\</code>.  For <code>\newcommand</code>, it
must not be already defined and must not begin with <code>\end</code>; for
<code>\renewcommand</code>, it must already be defined.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">nargs</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments
that the command will take.  The default is for the command to have no
arguments.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">optarg</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command&textrsquo;s
first argument is optional.  The default value of the optional
argument (i.e., if it is not specified in the call) is <var>optarg</var>,
or, if that argument is present in the <code>\newcommand</code> but has an
empty value, the string <samp>def</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">defn</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The text to be substituted for every occurrence of <code>cmd</code>; a
construct of the form <code>#<var>n</var></code> in <var>defn</var> is replaced by the
text of the <var>n</var>th argument.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<!-- c xx \providecommand, * form (non-\long) -->

</section>
<node name="_005cnewcounter" spaces=" "><nodename>\newcounter</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\newlength</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Definitions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newcounter</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="300">\newcounter</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="187">counters, defining new</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\newcounter&lbrace;<var>cnt</var>&rbrace;[<var>countername</var>]
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\newcounter</code> command defines a new counter named <var>cnt</var>.
The new counter is initialized to zero.
</para>
<para>Given the optional argument <code>[<var>countername</var>]</code>, <var>cnt</var>
will be reset whenever <var>countername</var> is incremented.
</para>
<para><xref label="Counters"><xrefnodename>Counters</xrefnodename></xref>, for more information about counters.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cnewlength" spaces=" "><nodename>\newlength</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\newsavebox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\newcounter</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Definitions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newlength</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="301">\newlength</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="188">lengths, defining new</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\newlength&lbrace;\<var>arg</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\newlength</code> command defines the mandatory argument as a
<code>length</code> command with a value of <code>0in</code>.  The argument must
be a control sequence, as in <code>\newlength&lbrace;\foo&rbrace;</code>.  An error
occurs if <code>\foo</code> is already defined.
</para>
<para><xref label="Lengths"><xrefnodename>Lengths</xrefnodename></xref>, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and
for more information about lengths in general.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cnewsavebox" spaces=" "><nodename>\newsavebox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\newlength</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Definitions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newsavebox</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="302">\newsavebox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\newsavebox&lbrace;<var>cmd</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Defines <code>\<var>cmd</var></code>, which must be a command name not already
defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment" spaces=" "><nodename>\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\newtheorem</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\newsavebox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Definitions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newenvironment</code> &amp; <code>\renewenvironment</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="303">\newenvironment</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="304">\renewenvironment</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="189">environments, defining</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="190">defining new environments</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="191">redefining environments</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopses:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">  \newenvironment[*]&lbrace;<var>env</var>&rbrace;[<var>nargs</var>][<var>default</var>]&lbrace;<var>begdef</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>enddef</var>&rbrace;
\renewenvironment[*]&lbrace;<var>env</var>&rbrace;[<var>nargs</var>]&lbrace;<var>begdef</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>enddef</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>These commands define or redefine an environment <var>env</var>, that is,
<code>\begin&lbrace;<var>env</var>&rbrace; &dots; \end&lbrace;<var>env</var>&rbrace;</code>.
</para>
<table commandarg="var" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var"><code>*</code></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="192">*-form of environment commands</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The *-form of these commands requires that the arguments (not the
contents of the environment) not contain multiple paragraphs of text.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">env</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The name of the environment.  For <code>\newenvironment</code>, <var>env</var>
must not be an existing environment, and the command <code>\<var>env</var></code>
must be undefined.  For <code>\renewenvironment</code>, <var>env</var> must be
the name of an existing environment.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">nargs</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of
the newly-defined environment.  The default is no arguments.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">default</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and <var>default</var>
gives the default value for that argument.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">begdef</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The text expanded at every occurrence of <code>\begin&lbrace;<var>env</var>&rbrace;</code>; a
construct of the form <code>#<var>n</var></code> in <var>begdef</var> is replaced by
the text of the <var>n</var>th argument.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">enddef</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The text expanded at every occurrence of <code>\end&lbrace;<var>env</var>&rbrace;</code>.  It
may not contain any argument parameters.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>


</section>
<node name="_005cnewtheorem" spaces=" "><nodename>\newtheorem</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\newfont</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Definitions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newtheorem</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="305">\newtheorem</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="193">theorems, defining</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="194">defining new theorems</indexterm></cindex>

<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\newtheorem&lbrace;<var>newenv</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>label</var>&rbrace;[<var>within</var>]
\newtheorem&lbrace;<var>newenv</var>&rbrace;[<var>numbered_like</var>]&lbrace;<var>label</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>This command defines a theorem-like environment.  Arguments:
</para>
<table commandarg="var" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">newenv</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an
existing environment or otherwise defined.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">label</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the
number. For example, <samp>Theorem</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">numbered_like</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(Optional.)  The name of an already defined theorem-like environment;
the new environment will be numbered just like <var>numbered_like</var>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">within</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(Optional.)  The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit.
The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the
<var>within</var> counter.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>At most one of <var>numbered_like</var> and <var>within</var> can be specified,
not both.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cnewfont" spaces=" "><nodename>\newfont</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\protect</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\newtheorem</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Definitions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\newfont</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="306">\newfont</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="195">fonts, new commands for</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="196">defining new fonts</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\newfont&lbrace;<var>cmd</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>fontname</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Defines a control sequence <code>\<var>cmd</var></code>, which must not already
be defined, to make <var>fontname</var> be the current font.  The file
looked for on the system is named <file><var>fontname</var>.tfm</file>.
</para>
<para>This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font.
More commonly, fonts are defined in families through <file>.fd</file> files.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cprotect" spaces=" "><nodename>\protect</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\newfont</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Definitions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\protect</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="307">\protect</indexterm></findex>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="197">fragile commands</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="198">moving arguments</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and
many more are so-called <dfn>fragile</dfn> commands.  When a fragile
command is used in certain contexts, called <dfn>moving arguments</dfn>, it
must be preceded by <code>\protect</code>.  In addition, any fragile
commands within the arguments must have their own <code>\protect</code>.
</para>
<para>Some examples of moving arguments are <code>\caption</code>
(<pxref label="figure"><xrefnodename>figure</xrefnodename></pxref>), <code>\thanks</code> (<pxref label="_005cmaketitle"><xrefnodename>\maketitle</xrefnodename></pxref>), and
&hyphenbreak;expressions in <code>tabular</code> and <code>array</code> environments
(<pxref label="tabular"><xrefnodename>tabular</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="199">robust commands</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Commands which are not fragile are called <dfn>robust</dfn>.  They must not
be preceded by <code>\protect</code>.
</para>
<para>See also:
</para>
<smallexample endspaces=" ">
<exdent spaces=" "><url><urefurl>http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html</urefurl></url></exdent>
<exdent spaces=" "><url><urefurl>http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect</urefurl></url></exdent>
</smallexample>

<!-- c xx really need examples. -->


</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Counters" spaces=" "><nodename>Counters</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Lengths</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Definitions</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Counters</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="200">counters, a list of</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="201">variables, a list of</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Everything &latex; numbers for you has a counter associated with
it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment
or command that produces the number, except with no <code>\</code>.
(<code>enumi</code>&textndash;<code>enumiv</code> are used for the nested enumerate
environment.)  Below is a list of the counters used in &latex;&textrsquo;s
standard document classes to control numbering.
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">part            paragraph       figure          enumi
chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
section         page            footnote        enumiii
subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
subsubsection
</pre></example>

<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Print value of a counter.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\usecounter</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Use a specified counter in a list environment.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\value</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Use the value of a counter in an expression.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\setcounter</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Set the value of a counter.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">\addtocounter</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Add a quantity to a counter.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">\refstepcounter</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\stepcounter</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::   ">\day \month \year</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Numeric date values.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol" spaces=" "><nodename>\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\usecounter</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Counters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</sectiontitle>

<para>All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
instance, <code>\alph&lbrace;enumi&rbrace;</code>.
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="308">\alph</indexterm>\alph</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>prints <var>counter</var> using lowercase letters: &textlsquo;a&textrsquo;, &textlsquo;b&textrsquo;, &enddots;
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="309">\Alph</indexterm>\Alph</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>uses uppercase letters: &textlsquo;A&textrsquo;, &textlsquo;B&textrsquo;, &enddots;
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="310">\arabic</indexterm>\arabic</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>uses Arabic numbers: &textlsquo;1&textrsquo;, &textlsquo;2&textrsquo;, &enddots;
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="311">\roman</indexterm>\roman</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>uses lowercase roman numerals: &textlsquo;i&textrsquo;, &textlsquo;ii&textrsquo;, &enddots;
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="312">\roman</indexterm>\roman</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>uses uppercase roman numerals: &textlsquo;I&textrsquo;, &textlsquo;II&textrsquo;, &enddots;
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="313">\fnsymbol</indexterm>\fnsymbol</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>prints the value of <var>counter</var> in a specific sequence of nine
symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes).  The value of
<var>counter</var> must be between&nbsp;1 and&nbsp;9, inclusive.
</para>
<tex endspaces=" ">
Here are the symbols:
$\ast$ $\dagger$ $\ddagger$ $\S$ $\P$ $\parallel$
$\ast\ast$ $\dagger\dagger$ $\ddagger\ddagger$
</tex>
<para>The symbols mostly aren&textrsquo;t supported in Info, but here are the names:
</para><display endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel
double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger
</pre></display>

</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="_005cusecounter" spaces=" "><nodename>\usecounter</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\value</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Counters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\usecounter&lbrace;<var>counter</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="314">\usecounter</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="202">list items, specifying counter</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="203">numbered items, specifying counter</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\usecounter&lbrace;<var>counter</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\usecounter</code> command is used in the second argument of the
<code>list</code> environment to specify <var>counter</var> to be used to number
the list items.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cvalue" spaces=" "><nodename>\value</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\setcounter</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\usecounter</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Counters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\value&lbrace;<var>counter</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="315">\value</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="204">counters, getting value of</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\value&lbrace;<var>counter</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\value</code> command produces the value of <var>counter</var>.  It can
be used anywhere &latex; expects a number, for example:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\setcounter&lbrace;myctr&rbrace;&lbrace;3&rbrace;
\addtocounter&lbrace;myctr&rbrace;&lbrace;1&rbrace;
\hspace&lbrace;\value&lbrace;myctr&rbrace;\parindent&rbrace;
</pre></example>


</section>
<node name="_005csetcounter" spaces=" "><nodename>\setcounter</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\addtocounter</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\value</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Counters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\setcounter&lbrace;<var>counter</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>value</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="316">\setcounter</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="205">counters, setting</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="206">setting counters</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\setcounter&lbrace;<var>\counter</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>value</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\setcounter</code> command sets the value of <var>\counter</var> to the
<var>value</var> argument.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005caddtocounter" spaces=" "><nodename>\addtocounter</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\refstepcounter</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\setcounter</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Counters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\addtocounter&lbrace;<var>counter</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>value</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="317">\addtocounter</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\addtocounter</code> command increments <var>counter</var> by the
amount specified by the <var>value</var> argument, which may be negative.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005crefstepcounter" spaces=" "><nodename>\refstepcounter</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\stepcounter</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\addtocounter</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Counters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\refstepcounter&lbrace;<var>counter</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="318">\refstepcounter</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\refstepcounter</code> command works in the same way as
<code>\stepcounter</code> <xref label="_005cstepcounter"><xrefnodename>\stepcounter</xrefnodename></xref>, except it also defines the
current <code>\ref</code> value to be the result of <code>\thecounter</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cstepcounter" spaces=" "><nodename>\stepcounter</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\day \month \year</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\refstepcounter</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Counters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\stepcounter&lbrace;<var>counter</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="319">\stepcounter</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\stepcounter</code> command adds one to <var>counter</var> and
resets all subsidiary counters.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cday-_005cmonth-_005cyear" spaces=" "><nodename>\day \month \year</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\stepcounter</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Counters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\day \month \year</code>: Predefined counters</sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="320">\day</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="321">\month</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="322">\year</indexterm></findex>

<para>&latex; defines counters for the day of the month (<code>\day</code>,
1&textndash;31), month of the year (<code>\month</code>, 1&textndash;12), and year
(<code>\year</code>, Common Era).  When &tex; starts up, they are
set to the current values on the system where &tex; is running.  They
are not updated as the job progresses.
</para>
<para>The related command <code>\today</code> produces a string representing the
current day (<pxref label="_005ctoday"><xrefnodename>\today</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Lengths" spaces=" "><nodename>Lengths</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Making paragraphs</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Counters</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Lengths</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="207">lengths, defining and using</indexterm></cindex>

<para>A <code>length</code> is a measure of distance.  Many &latex; commands take a
length as an argument.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">\setlength</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Set the value of a length.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\addtolength</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Add a quantity to a length.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\settodepth</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Set a length to the depth of something.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\settoheight</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Set a length to the height of something.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\settowidth</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Set a length to the width of something.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">Predefined lengths</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Lengths that are, like, predefined.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005csetlength" spaces=" "><nodename>\setlength</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\addtolength</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Lengths</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\setlength&lbrace;\<var>len</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>value</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="323">\setlength</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="208">lengths, setting</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\setlength</code> sets the value of <var>\len</var> to the <var>value</var>
argument, which can be expressed in any units that &latex;
understands, i.e., inches (<code>in</code>), millimeters (<code>mm</code>), points
(<code>pt</code>), big points (<code>bp</code>, etc.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005caddtolength" spaces=" "><nodename>\addtolength</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\settodepth</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\setlength</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Lengths</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>\addtolength&lbrace;<var>\len</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>amount</var>&rbrace;</sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="324">\addtolength</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="209">lengths, adding to</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\addtolength</code> command increments a &textldquo;length command&textrdquo;
<var>\len</var> by the amount specified in the <var>amount</var> argument, which
may be negative.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005csettodepth" spaces=" "><nodename>\settodepth</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\settoheight</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\addtolength</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Lengths</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\settodepth</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="325">\settodepth</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\settodepth&lbrace;\gnat&rbrace;&lbrace;text&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>The <code>\settodepth</code> command sets the value of a <code>length</code> command
equal to the depth of the <code>text</code> argument.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005csettoheight" spaces=" "><nodename>\settoheight</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\settowidth</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\settodepth</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Lengths</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\settoheight</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="326">\settoheight</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\settoheight&lbrace;\gnat&rbrace;&lbrace;text&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>The <code>\settoheight</code> command sets the value of a <code>length</code> command
equal to the height of the <code>text</code> argument.
</para>


</section>
<node name="_005csettowidth" spaces=" "><nodename>\settowidth</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Predefined lengths</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\settoheight</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Lengths</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\settowidth&lbrace;\<var>len</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="327">\settowidth</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\settowidth</code> command sets the value of the command <var>\len</var>
to the width of the <var>text</var> argument.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Predefined-lengths" spaces=" "><nodename>Predefined lengths</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\settowidth</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Lengths</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Predefined lengths</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="210">lengths, predefined</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="211">predefined lengths</indexterm></cindex>

<para><code>\width</code>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="328">\width</indexterm></findex>
</para>
<para><code>\height</code>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="329">\height</indexterm></findex>
</para>
<para><code>\depth</code>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="330">\depth</indexterm></findex>
</para>
<para><code>\totalheight</code>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="331">\totalheight</indexterm></findex>
</para>
<para>These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making
commands (<pxref label="Boxes"><xrefnodename>Boxes</xrefnodename></pxref>).  They specify the natural width, etc., of
the text in the box. <code>\totalheight</code> equals <code>\height</code> +
<code>\depth</code>. To make a box with the text stretched to double the
natural size, e.g., say
</para>
<para><code>\makebox[2\width]&lbrace;Get a stretcher&rbrace;</code>
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Making-paragraphs" spaces=" "><nodename>Making paragraphs</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Math formulas</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Lengths</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Making paragraphs</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="212">making paragraphs</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="213">paragraphs</indexterm></cindex>

<para>A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines&textmdash;lines not
containing even a <code>%</code>.  A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\indent</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Indent this paragraph.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">\noindent</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Do not indent this paragraph.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::       ">\parskip</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Space added before paragraphs.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator=":: ">Marginal notes</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Putting remarks in the margin.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005cindent" spaces=" "><nodename>\indent</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\noindent</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Making paragraphs</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\indent</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="332">\indent</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="333">\parindent</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="214">indent, forcing</indexterm></cindex>

<para><code>\indent</code> produces a horizontal space whose width equals the
width of the <code>\parindent</code> length, the normal paragraph
indentation.  It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would
otherwise be suppressed.
</para>
<para>The default value for <code>\parindent</code> is <code>1em</code> in two-column
mode, otherwise <code>15pt</code> for <code>10pt</code> documents, <code>17pt</code> for
<code>11pt</code>, and <code>1.5em</code> for <code>12pt</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cnoindent" spaces=" "><nodename>\noindent</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\parskip</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\indent</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Making paragraphs</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\noindent</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="334">\noindent</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="215">indent, suppressing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>When used at the beginning of the paragraph, <code>\noindent</code>
suppresses any paragraph indentation.  It has no effect when used in
the middle of a paragraph.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cparskip" spaces=" "><nodename>\parskip</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Marginal notes</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\noindent</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Making paragraphs</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\parskip</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="335">\parskip</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="216">vertical space before paragraphs</indexterm></cindex>

<para><code>\parskip</code> is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added
before each paragraph.  The default is <code>0pt plus1pt</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Marginal-notes" spaces=" "><nodename>Marginal notes</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\parskip</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Making paragraphs</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Marginal notes</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="217">marginal notes</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="218">notes in the margin</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="219">remarks in the margin</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="336">\marginpar</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\marginpar[<var>left</var>]&lbrace;<var>right</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\marginpar</code> command creates a note in the margin.  The first
line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text
where the <code>\marginpar</code> occurs.
</para>
<para>When you only specify the mandatory argument <var>right</var>, the text
will be placed
</para>
<itemize commandarg="bullet" spaces=" " endspaces=" "><itemprepend><formattingcommand command="bullet"/></itemprepend>
<listitem><prepend>&bullet;</prepend>
<para>in the right margin for one-sided layout;
</para></listitem><listitem><prepend>&bullet;</prepend>
<para>in the outside margin for two-sided layout;
</para></listitem><listitem><prepend>&bullet;</prepend>
<para>in the nearest margin for two-column layout.
</para></listitem></itemize>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="337">\reversemarginpar</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="338">\normalmarginpar</indexterm></findex>
<para>The command <code>\reversemarginpar</code> places subsequent marginal notes
in the opposite (inside) margin.  <code>\normalmarginpar</code> places them
in the default position.
</para>
<para>When you specify both arguments, <var>left</var> is used for the left
margin, and <var>right</var> is used for the right margin.
</para>
<para>The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
hyphenation there by beginning the node with <code>\hspace&lbrace;0pt&rbrace;</code>.
</para>
<para>These parameters affect the formatting of the note:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="339">\marginparpush</indexterm>\marginparpush</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Minimum vertical space between notes; default <samp>7pt</samp> for
<samp>12pt</samp> documents, <samp>5pt</samp> else.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="340">\marginparsep</indexterm>\marginparsep</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default
<samp>11pt</samp> for <samp>10pt</samp> documents, <samp>10pt</samp> else.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="341">\marginparwidth</indexterm>\marginparwidth</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided <samp>10pt</samp> document
is <samp>90pt</samp>, <samp>83pt</samp> for <samp>11pt</samp>, and <samp>68pt</samp> for
<samp>12pt</samp>; <samp>17pt</samp> more in each case for a two-sided document.
In two column mode, the default is <samp>48pt</samp>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>

<para>The standard &latex; routine for marginal notes does not prevent
notes from falling off the bottom of the page.
<!-- c  @TeX{} FAQ entry on this topic (xx when there): -->
<!-- c @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=marginparside}. -->
<!-- c (+marginfix) -->
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Math-formulas" spaces=" "><nodename>Math formulas</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Modes</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Making paragraphs</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Math formulas</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="220">math formulas</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="221">formulas, math</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="222">math mode, entering</indexterm></cindex>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="342">math <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="343">displaymath <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="344">equation <r>environment</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>There are three environments that put &latex; in math mode:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">math</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>For formulas that appear right in the text.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">displaymath</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>For formulas that appear on their own line.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">equation</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation
number in the right margin.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="345">\(</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="346">\)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="347">\[</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="348">\]</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>math</code> environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode,
but the <code>displaymath</code> and <code>equation</code> environments can be used
only in paragraph mode.  The <code>math</code> and <code>displaymath</code>
environments are used so often that they have the following short forms:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\(...\)   <r>instead of</r>   \begin&lbrace;math&rbrace;...\end&lbrace;math&rbrace;
\[...\]   <r>instead of</r>   \begin&lbrace;displaymath&rbrace;...\end&lbrace;displaymath&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="349">$</indexterm></findex>
<para>In fact, the <code>math</code> environment is so common that it has an even
shorter form:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">$ ... $   <r>instead of</r>   \(...\)
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="350">\boldmath</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="351">\unboldmath</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\boldmath</code> command changes math letters and symbols to be in
a bold font.  It is used <emph>outside</emph> of math mode.  Conversely, the
<code>\unboldmath</code> command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font;
it too is used <emph>outside</emph> of math mode.
</para>
<!-- c xx own section? Math fonts? -->
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="352">\displaystyle</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\displaystyle</code> declaration forces the size and style of the
formula to be that of <code>displaymath</code>, e.g., with limits above and
below summations.  For example
</para><example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">$\displaystyle \sum_&lbrace;n=0&rbrace;^\infty x_n $
</pre></example>

<!-- c xx see also \cal, \mathcal -->

<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::   ">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Also known as exponent or index.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                ">Math symbols</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Various mathematical squiggles.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">Math functions</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Math function names like sin and exp.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                ">Math accents</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Accents in math.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">Spacing in math mode</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::             ">Math miscellany</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Stuff that doesn&textrsquo;t fit anywhere else.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="Subscripts-_0026-superscripts" spaces=" "><nodename>Subscripts &amp; superscripts</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Math symbols</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Math formulas</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Subscripts &amp; superscripts</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="223">superscript</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="224">subscript</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="225">exponent</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="353">_</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="354">^</indexterm></findex>

<para>To get an expression <i>exp</i> to appear as a subscript, you just type
<code>_&lbrace;</code><i>exp</i><code>&rbrace;</code>.  To get <i>exp</i> to appear as a
superscript, you type <code>^&lbrace;</code><i>exp</i><code>&rbrace;</code>. &latex; handles
superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way.
It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a
superscript.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Math-symbols" spaces=" "><nodename>Math symbols</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Math functions</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Math formulas</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Math symbols</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="226">math symbols</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="227">symbols, math</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="228">greek letters</indexterm></cindex>

<para>&latex; provides almost any mathematical symbol you&textrsquo;re likely to
need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode.
For example, if you include <code>$\pi$</code> in your source, you will get
the pi symbol (<math>\pi</math>) in your output.
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="355">\|</indexterm>\|</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\|</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="356">\aleph</indexterm>\aleph</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\aleph</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="357">\alpha</indexterm>\alpha</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\alpha</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="358">\amalg</indexterm>\amalg</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\amalg</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="359">\angle</indexterm>\angle</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\angle</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="360">\approx</indexterm>\approx</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\approx</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="361">\ast</indexterm>\ast</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ast</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="362">\asymp</indexterm>\asymp</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\asymp</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="363">\backslash</indexterm>\backslash</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>\ (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="364">\beta</indexterm>\beta</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\beta</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="365">\bigcap</indexterm>\bigcap</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigcap</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="366">\bigcirc</indexterm>\bigcirc</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigcirc</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="367">\bigcup</indexterm>\bigcup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigcup</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="368">\bigodot</indexterm>\bigodot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigodot</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="369">\bigoplus</indexterm>\bigoplus</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigoplus</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="370">\bigotimes</indexterm>\bigotimes</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigotimes</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="371">\bigtriangledown</indexterm>\bigtriangledown</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigtriangledown</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="372">\bigtriangleup</indexterm>\bigtriangleup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigtriangleup</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="373">\bigsqcup</indexterm>\bigsqcup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigsqcup</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="374">\biguplus</indexterm>\biguplus</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\biguplus</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="375">\bigcap</indexterm>\bigcap</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigvee</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="376">\bigwedge</indexterm>\bigwedge</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bigwedge</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="377">\bot</indexterm>\bot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bot</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="378">\bowtie</indexterm>\bowtie</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\bowtie</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="379">\Box</indexterm>\Box</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(square open box symbol) <!-- c xx not in plain -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="380">\bullet</indexterm>\bullet</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="229">bullet symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<para><math>\bullet</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="381">\cap</indexterm>\cap</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\cap</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="382">\cdot</indexterm>\cdot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\cdot</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="383">\chi</indexterm>\chi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\chi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="384">\circ</indexterm>\circ</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\circ</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="385">\clubsuit</indexterm>\clubsuit</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\clubsuit</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="386">\cong</indexterm>\cong</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\cong</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="387">\coprod</indexterm>\coprod</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\coprod</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="388">\cup</indexterm>\cup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\cup</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="389">\dagger</indexterm>\dagger</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\dagger</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="390">\dashv</indexterm>\dashv</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\dashv</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="391">\ddagger</indexterm>\ddagger</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\dagger</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="392">\Delta</indexterm>\Delta</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Delta</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="393">\delta</indexterm>\delta</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\delta</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="394">\Diamond</indexterm>\Diamond</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>bigger <math>\diamond</math> <!-- c xx not in plain -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="395">\diamond</indexterm>\diamond</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\diamond</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="396">\diamondsuit</indexterm>\diamondsuit</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\diamondsuit</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="397">\div</indexterm>\div</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\div</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="398">\doteq</indexterm>\doteq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\doteq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="399">\downarrow</indexterm>\downarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\downarrow</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="400">\Downarrow</indexterm>\Downarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Downarrow</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="401">\ell</indexterm>\ell</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ell</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="402">\emptyset</indexterm>\emptyset</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\emptyset</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="403">\epsilon</indexterm>\epsilon</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\epsilon</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="404">\equiv</indexterm>\equiv</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\equiv</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="405">\eta</indexterm>\eta</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\eta</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="406">\exists</indexterm>\exists</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\exists</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="407">\flat</indexterm>\flat</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\flat</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="408">\forall</indexterm>\forall</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\forall</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="409">\frown</indexterm>\frown</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\frown</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="410">\Gamma</indexterm>\Gamma</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Gamma</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="411">\gamma</indexterm>\gamma</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\gamma</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="412">\ge</indexterm>\ge</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ge</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="413">\geq</indexterm>\geq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\geq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="414">\gets</indexterm>\gets</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\gets</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="415">\gg</indexterm>\gg</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\gg</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="416">\hbar</indexterm>\hbar</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\hbar</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="417">\heartsuit</indexterm>\heartsuit</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\heartsuit</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="418">\hookleftarrow</indexterm>\hookleftarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\hookleftarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="419">\hookrightarrow</indexterm>\hookrightarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\hookrightarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="420">\iff</indexterm>\iff</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\iff</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="421">\Im</indexterm>\Im</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Im</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="422">\in</indexterm>\in</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\in</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="423">\infty</indexterm>\infty</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\infty</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="424">\int</indexterm>\int</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\int</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="425">\iota</indexterm>\iota</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\iota</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="426">\Join</indexterm>\Join</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>condensed bowtie symbol (relation) <!-- c xx not in plain -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="427">\kappa</indexterm>\kappa</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\kappa</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="428">\Lambda</indexterm>\Lambda</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Lambda</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="429">\lambda</indexterm>\lambda</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lambda</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="430">\land</indexterm>\land</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\land</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="431">\langle</indexterm>\langle</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\langle</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="432">\lbrace</indexterm>\lbrace</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lbrace</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="433">\lbrack</indexterm>\lbrack</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lbrack</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="434">\lceil</indexterm>\lceil</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lceil</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="435">\le</indexterm>\le</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\le</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="436">\leadsto</indexterm>\leadsto</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><!-- c xx missing from plain -->

</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="437">\Leftarrow</indexterm>\Leftarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Leftarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="438">\leftarrow</indexterm>\leftarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\leftarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="439">\leftharpoondown</indexterm>\leftharpoondown</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\leftharpoondown</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="440">\leftharpoonup</indexterm>\leftharpoonup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\leftharpoonup</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="441">\Leftrightarrow</indexterm>\Leftrightarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Leftrightarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="442">\leftrightarrow</indexterm>\leftrightarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\leftrightarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="443">\leq</indexterm>\leq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\leq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="444">\lfloor</indexterm>\lfloor</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lfloor</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="445">\lhd</indexterm>\lhd</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(left-pointing arrow head) <!-- c xx not in plain -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="446">\ll</indexterm>\ll</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ll</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="447">\lnot</indexterm>\lnot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lnot</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="448">\longleftarrow</indexterm>\longleftarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\longleftarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="449">\longleftrightarrow</indexterm>\longleftrightarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\longleftrightarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="450">\longmapsto</indexterm>\longmapsto</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\longmapsto</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="451">\longrightarrow</indexterm>\longrightarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\longrightarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="452">\lor</indexterm>\lor</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lor</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="453">\mapsto</indexterm>\mapsto</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\mapsto</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="454">\mho</indexterm>\mho</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><!-- c xx not in plain -->

</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="455">\mid</indexterm>\mid</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\mid</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="456">\models</indexterm>\models</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\models</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="457">\mp</indexterm>\mp</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\mp</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="458">\mu</indexterm>\mu</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\mu</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="459">\nabla</indexterm>\nabla</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\nabla</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="460">\natural</indexterm>\natural</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\natural</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="461">\ne</indexterm>\ne</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ne</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="462">\nearrow</indexterm>\nearrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\nearrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="463">\neg</indexterm>\neg</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\neg</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="464">\neq</indexterm>\neq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\neq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="465">\ni</indexterm>\ni</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ni</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="466">\not</indexterm>\not</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in <math>\not=</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="467">\notin</indexterm>\notin</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ni</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="468">\nu</indexterm>\nu</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\nu</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="469">\nwarrow</indexterm>\nwarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\nwarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="470">\odot</indexterm>\odot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\odot</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="471">\oint</indexterm>\oint</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\oint</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="472">\Omega</indexterm>\Omega</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Omega</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="473">\omega</indexterm>\omega</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\omega</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="474">\ominus</indexterm>\ominus</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ominus</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="475">\oplus</indexterm>\oplus</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\oplus</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="476">\oslash</indexterm>\oslash</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\oslash</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="477">\otimes</indexterm>\otimes</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\otimes</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="478">\owns</indexterm>\owns</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\owns</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="479">\parallel</indexterm>\parallel</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\parallel</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="480">\partial</indexterm>\partial</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\partial</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="481">\perp</indexterm>\perp</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\perp</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="482">\phi</indexterm>\phi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\phi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="483">\Pi</indexterm>\Pi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Pi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="484">\pi</indexterm>\pi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\pi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="485">\pm</indexterm>\pm</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\pm</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="486">\prec</indexterm>\prec</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\prec</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="487">\preceq</indexterm>\preceq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\preceq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="488">\prime</indexterm>\prime</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\prime</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="489">\prod</indexterm>\prod</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\prod</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="490">\propto</indexterm>\propto</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\propto</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="491">\Psi</indexterm>\Psi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Psi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="492">\psi</indexterm>\psi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\psi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="493">\rangle</indexterm>\rangle</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rangle</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="494">\rbrace</indexterm>\rbrace</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rbrace</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="495">\rbrack</indexterm>\rbrack</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rbrack</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="496">\rceil</indexterm>\rceil</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rceil</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="497">\Re</indexterm>\Re</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Re</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="498">\rfloor</indexterm>\rfloor</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rfloor</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="499">\rhd</indexterm>\rhd</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(binary operation) <!-- c xx not in plain @math{\rhd} -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="500">\rho</indexterm>\rho</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rho</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="501">\Rightarrow</indexterm>\Rightarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Rightarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="502">\rightarrow</indexterm>\rightarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rightarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="503">\rightharpoondown</indexterm>\rightharpoondown</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rightharpoondown</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="504">\rightharpoonup</indexterm>\rightharpoonup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rightharpoonup</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="505">\rightleftharpoons</indexterm>\rightleftharpoons</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\rightleftharpoons</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="506">\searrow</indexterm>\searrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\searrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="507">\setminus</indexterm>\setminus</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\setminus</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="508">\sharp</indexterm>\sharp</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sharp</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="509">\Sigma</indexterm>\Sigma</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Sigma</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="510">\sigma</indexterm>\sigma</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sigma</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="511">\sim</indexterm>\sim</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sim</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="512">\simeq</indexterm>\simeq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\simeq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="513">\smallint</indexterm>\smallint</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\smallint</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="514">\smile</indexterm>\smile</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\smile</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="515">\spadesuit</indexterm>\spadesuit</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\spadesuit</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="516">\sqcap</indexterm>\sqcap</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sqcap</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="517">\sqcup</indexterm>\sqcup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sqcup</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="518">\sqsubset</indexterm>\sqsubset</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(relation) <!-- c not in plain (@math{\sqsubset}) -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="519">\sqsubseteq</indexterm>\sqsubseteq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sqsubseteq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="520">\sqsupset</indexterm>\sqsupset</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>(relation) <!-- c not in plain (@math{\sqsupset}) -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="521">\sqsupseteq</indexterm>\sqsupseteq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sqsupseteq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="522">\star</indexterm>\star</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\star</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="523">\subset</indexterm>\subset</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\subset</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="524">\subseteq</indexterm>\subseteq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\subseteq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="525">\succ</indexterm>\succ</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\succ</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="526">\succeq</indexterm>\succeq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\succeq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="527">\sum</indexterm>\sum</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sum</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="528">\supset</indexterm>\supset</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\supset</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="529">\supseteq</indexterm>\supseteq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\supseteq</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="530">\surd</indexterm>\surd</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\surd</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="531">\swarrow</indexterm>\swarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\swarrow</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="532">\tau</indexterm>\tau</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\tau</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="533">\theta</indexterm>\theta</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\theta</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="534">\times</indexterm>\times</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\times</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="535">\to</indexterm>\to</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\to</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="536">\top</indexterm>\top</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\top</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="537">\triangle</indexterm>\triangle</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\triangle</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="538">\triangleleft</indexterm>\triangleleft</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\triangleleft</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="539">\triangleright</indexterm>\triangleright</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\triangleright</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="540">\unlhd</indexterm>\unlhd</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) <!-- c not in plain -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="541">\unrhd</indexterm>\unrhd</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) <!-- c not in plain -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="542">\Uparrow</indexterm>\Uparrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Uparrow</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="543">\uparrow</indexterm>\uparrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\uparrow</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="544">\Updownarrow</indexterm>\Updownarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Updownarrow</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="545">\updownarrow</indexterm>\updownarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\updownarrow</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="546">\uplus</indexterm>\uplus</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\uplus</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="547">\Upsilon</indexterm>\Upsilon</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Upsilon</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="548">\upsilon</indexterm>\upsilon</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\upsilon</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="549">\varepsilon</indexterm>\varepsilon</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\varepsilon</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="550">\varphi</indexterm>\varphi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\varphi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="551">\varpi</indexterm>\varpi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\varpi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="552">\varrho</indexterm>\varrho</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\varrho</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="553">\varsigma</indexterm>\varsigma</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\varsigma</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="554">\vartheta</indexterm>\vartheta</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\vartheta</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="555">\vdash</indexterm>\vdash</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\vdash</math> (relation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="556">\vee</indexterm>\vee</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\vee</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="557">\Vert</indexterm>\Vert</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Vert</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="558">\vert</indexterm>\vert</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\vert</math> (delimiter)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="559">\wedge</indexterm>\wedge</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\wedge</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="560">\wp</indexterm>\wp</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\wp</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="561">\wr</indexterm>\wr</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\wr</math> (binary operation)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="562">\Xi</indexterm>\Xi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Xi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="563">\xi</indexterm>\xi</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\xi</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="564">\zeta</indexterm>\zeta</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\zeta</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="Math-functions" spaces=" "><nodename>Math functions</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Math accents</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Math symbols</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Math formulas</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Math functions</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="230">math functions</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="231">functions, math</indexterm></cindex>

<para>These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper
spacing.
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="565">\arccos</indexterm>\arccos</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\arccos</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="566">\arcsin</indexterm>\arcsin</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\arcsin</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="567">\arctan</indexterm>\arctan</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\arctan</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="568">\arg</indexterm>\arg</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\arg</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="569">\bmod</indexterm>\bmod</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Binary modulo operator (<math>x \bmod y</math>)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="570">\cos</indexterm>\cos</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\cos</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="571">\cosh</indexterm>\cosh</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\cosh</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="572">\cot</indexterm>\cot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\cos</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="573">\coth</indexterm>\coth</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\cosh</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="574">\csc</indexterm>\csc</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\csc</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="575">\deg</indexterm>\deg</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\deg</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="576">\det</indexterm>\det</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\deg</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="577">\dim</indexterm>\dim</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\dim</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="578">\exp</indexterm>\exp</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\exp</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="579">\gcd</indexterm>\gcd</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\gcd</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="580">\hom</indexterm>\hom</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\hom</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="581">\inf</indexterm>\inf</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\inf</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="582">\ker</indexterm>\ker</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ker</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="583">\lg</indexterm>\lg</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lg</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="584">\lim</indexterm>\lim</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\lim</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="585">\liminf</indexterm>\liminf</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\liminf</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="586">\limsup</indexterm>\limsup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\limsup</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="587">\ln</indexterm>\ln</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\ln</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="588">\log</indexterm>\log</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\log</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="589">\max</indexterm>\max</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\max</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="590">\min</indexterm>\min</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\min</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="591">\pmod</indexterm>\pmod</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>parenthesized modulus, as in (<math>\pmod 2^n - 1</math>)
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="592">\Pr</indexterm>\Pr</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\Pr</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="593">\sec</indexterm>\sec</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sec</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="594">\sin</indexterm>\sin</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sin</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="595">\sinh</indexterm>\sinh</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sinh</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="596">\sup</indexterm>\sup</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\sup</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="597">\tan</indexterm>\tan</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\tan</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="598">\tanh</indexterm>\tanh</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para><math>\tanh</math>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="Math-accents" spaces=" "><nodename>Math accents</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Spacing in math mode</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Math functions</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Math formulas</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Math accents</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="232">math accents</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="233">accents, mathematical</indexterm></cindex>

<para>&latex; provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters
in math.  These are different from accents in normal text
(<pxref label="Accents"><xrefnodename>Accents</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="599">\acute</indexterm>\acute</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="234">acute accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math acute accent: <math>\acute{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="600">\bar</indexterm>\bar</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="235">bar-over accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="236">macron accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math bar-over accent: <math>\bar{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="601">\breve</indexterm>\breve</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="237">breve accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math breve accent: <math>\breve{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="602">\check</indexterm>\check</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="238">check accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="239">h<accent type="acute" bracketed="off">a</accent><accent type="caron">c</accent>ek accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math h<accent type="acute" bracketed="off">a</accent><accent type="caron">c</accent>ek (check) accent: <math>\check{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="603">\ddot</indexterm>\ddot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="240">double dot accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math dieresis accent: <math>\ddot{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="604">\dot</indexterm>\dot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="241">overdot accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="242">dot over accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math dot accent: <math>\dot{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="605">\grave</indexterm>\grave</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="243">grave accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math grave accent: <math>\grave{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="606">\hat</indexterm>\hat</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="244">hat accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="245">circumflex accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math hat (circumflex) accent: <math>\hat{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="607">\imath</indexterm>\imath</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="246">dotless i, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math dotless i.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="608">\jmath</indexterm>\jmath</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="247">dotless j, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math dotless j.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="609">\mathring</indexterm>\mathring</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="248">ring accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math ring accent: <accent type="ring">x</accent>.  <!-- c don't bother implementing in texinfo -->
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="610">\tilde</indexterm>\tilde</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="249">tilde accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math tilde accent: <math>\tilde{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="611">\vec</indexterm>\vec</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="250">vector symbol, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math vector symbol: <math>\vec{x}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="612">\widehat</indexterm>\widehat</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="251">wide hat accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math wide hat accent: <math>\widehat{x+y}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="613">\widehat</indexterm>\widehat</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="252">wide tile accent, math</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Math wide tilde accent: <math>\widetilde{x+y}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="Spacing-in-math-mode" spaces=" "><nodename>Spacing in math mode</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Math miscellany</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Math accents</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Math formulas</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Spacing in math mode</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="253">spacing within math mode</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="254">math mode, spacing</indexterm></cindex>

<para>In a <code>math</code> environment, &latex; ignores the spaces you type and
puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics
texts.  If you want different spacing, &latex; provides the following
commands for use in math mode:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="614">\;</indexterm></findex>
<para>A thick space (<math>5\over18\,</math>quad).
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\:</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\&gt;</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="615">\:</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="616">\&gt;</indexterm></findex>
<para>Both of these produce a medium space (<math>2\over9\,</math>quad).
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\,</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="617">\,</indexterm></findex>
<para>A thin space (<math>1\over6\,</math>quad); not restricted to math mode.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\!</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>A negative thin space (<math>-{1\over6}\,</math>quad).
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>


</section>
<node name="Math-miscellany" spaces=" "><nodename>Math miscellany</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">Spacing in math mode</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Math formulas</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Math miscellany</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="255">math miscellany</indexterm></cindex>

<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<beforefirstitem>
</beforefirstitem><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="618">\*</indexterm>\*</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="256">discretionary multiplication</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="257">multiplication symbol, discretionary line break</indexterm></cindex>
<para>A &textldquo;discretionary&textrdquo; multiplication symbol, at which a line break is
allowed.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="619">\cdots</indexterm>\cdots</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line.
<tex endspaces=" ">
As in: &textlsquo;$\cdots$&textrsquo;.
</tex>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="620">\ddots</indexterm>\ddots</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>A diagonal ellipsis: <math>\ddots</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="621">\frac&lbrace;num&rbrace;&lbrace;den&rbrace;</indexterm>\frac&lbrace;num&rbrace;&lbrace;den&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="622">\frac</indexterm></findex>
<para>Produces the fraction <code>num</code> divided by <code>den</code>.
</para>

</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="623">\left <var>delim1</var> ... \right <var>delim2</var></indexterm>\left <var>delim1</var> ... \right <var>delim2</var></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="624">\right</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="258">null delimiter</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The two delimiters need not match; <samp>.</samp> acts as a null delimiter,
producing no output.  The delimiters are sized according to the math
in between.  Example: <code>\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]</code>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="625">\overbrace&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\overbrace&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Generates a brace over <var>text</var>.
For example, <math>\overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="626">\overline&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\overline&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Generates a horizontal line over <var>tex</var>.
For exampe, <math>\overline{x+y}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="627">\sqrt[<var>root</var>]&lbrace;arg&rbrace;</indexterm>\sqrt[<var>root</var>]&lbrace;arg&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Produces the representation of the square root of <var>arg</var>.  The
optional argument <var>root</var> determines what root to produce.  For
example, the cube root of <code>x+y</code> would be typed as
<code>$\sqrt[3]&lbrace;x+y&rbrace;$</code>.
<tex endspaces=" ">
In &tex;, the result looks like this:
$\root 3 \of x+y$.
</tex>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="628">\stackrel&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>relation</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\stackrel&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>relation</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Puts <var>text</var> above <var>relation</var>.  For example,
<code>\stackrel&lbrace;f&rbrace;&lbrace;\longrightarrow&rbrace;</code>.
<tex endspaces=" ">
In &tex;, the result looks like this:
$\buildrel f \over \longrightarrow$.
</tex>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="629">\underbrace&lbrace;math&rbrace;</indexterm>\underbrace&lbrace;math&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Generates <var>math</var> with a brace underneath.
<tex endspaces=" ">
In &tex;, the result looks like this:
$\underbrace{x+y+z}_{&gt;\,0}$.
</tex>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="630">\underline&lbrace;text&rbrace;</indexterm>\underline&lbrace;text&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Causes <var>text</var>, which may be either math mode or not, to be
underlined.  The line is always below the text, taking account of
descenders.
<tex endspaces=" ">
In &tex;, the result looks like this:
$\underline{xyz}$
</tex>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="631">\vdots</indexterm>\vdots</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="632">\vdots</indexterm></findex>
<para>Produces a vertical ellipsis.
<tex endspaces=" ">
In &tex;, the result looks like this:
$\vdots$.
</tex>
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Modes" spaces=" "><nodename>Modes</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Page styles</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Math formulas</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Modes</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="259">modes</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="260">paragraph mode</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="261">math mode</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="262">left-to-right mode</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="263">lR mode</indexterm></cindex>


<para>When &latex; is processing your input text, it is always in one of three
modes:
</para>
<itemize commandarg="bullet" spaces=" " endspaces=" "><itemprepend><formattingcommand command="bullet"/></itemprepend>
<listitem><prepend>&bullet;</prepend>
<para>Paragraph mode
</para></listitem><listitem><prepend>&bullet;</prepend>
<para>Math mode
</para></listitem><listitem><prepend>&bullet;</prepend>
<para>Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short
</para></listitem></itemize>

<para>&latex; changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a
different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes.
Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when
&latex; is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands.
</para>
<para>&textldquo;Paragraph mode&textrdquo; is the most common; it&textrsquo;s the one &latex; is in
when processing ordinary text.  In that mode, &latex; breaks your
text into lines and breaks the lines into pages.  &latex; is in
&textldquo;math mode&textrdquo; when it&textrsquo;s generating a mathematical formula.  In &textldquo;LR
mode&textrdquo;, as in paragraph mode, &latex; considers the output that it
produces to be a string of words with spaces between them.  However,
unlike paragraph mode, &latex; keeps going from left to right; it
never starts a new line in LR mode.  Even if you put a hundred words
into an <code>\mbox</code>, &latex; would keep typesetting them from left
to right inside a single box, and then complain because the resulting
box was too wide to fit on the line.
</para>
<para>&latex; is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an <code>\mbox</code>
command.  You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for
example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box.
There are also several text-producing commands and environments for
making a box that put &latex; in paragraph mode.  The box make by one of
these commands or environments will be called a <code>parbox</code>.  When
&latex; is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in
&textldquo;inner paragraph mode&textrdquo;.  Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out
in, is called &textldquo;outer paragraph mode&textrdquo;.
</para>

</chapter>
<node name="Page-styles" spaces=" "><nodename>Page styles</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Spaces</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Modes</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Page styles</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="264">styles, page</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="265">page styles</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\documentclass</code> command determines the size and position of
the page&textrsquo;s head and foot.  The page style determines what goes in them.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">\maketitle</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Generate a title page.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">\pagenumbering</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Set the style used for page numbers.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::		">\pagestyle</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Change the headings/footings style.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">\thispagestyle</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Change the headings/footings style for this page.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005cmaketitle" spaces=" "><nodename>\maketitle</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\pagenumbering</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Page styles</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\maketitle</code></sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="266">titles, making</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="633">\maketitle</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\maketitle</code> command generates a title on a separate title
page&textmdash;except in the <code>article</code> class, where the title is placed
at the top of the first page.  Information used to produce the title
is obtained from the following declarations:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="634">\author&lbrace;<var>name</var> \and <var>name2</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\author&lbrace;<var>name</var> \and <var>name2</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="267">author, for titlepage</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="635">\\ <r>for <code>\author</code></r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="636">\and <r>for <code>\author</code></r></indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\author</code> command declares the document author(s), where the
argument is a list of authors separated by <code>\and</code> commands.  Use
<code>\\</code> to separate lines within a single author&textrsquo;s entry&textmdash;for
example, to give the author&textrsquo;s institution or address.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="637">\date&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\date&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="268">date, for titlepage</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>\date</code> command declares <var>text</var> to be the document&textrsquo;s
date.  With no <code>\date</code> command, the current date (<pxref label="_005ctoday"><xrefnodename>\today</xrefnodename></pxref>)
is used.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="638">\thanks&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\thanks&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="269">thanks, for titlepage</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="270">credit footnote</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>\thanks</code> command produces a <code>\footnote</code> to the title,
usually used for credit acknowledgements.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="639">\title&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\title&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="271">title, for titlepage</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="640">\\ <r>for <code>\title</code></r></indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\title</code> command declares <var>text</var> to be the title of the
document.  Use <code>\\</code> to force a line break, as usual.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="_005cpagenumbering" spaces=" "><nodename>\pagenumbering</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\pagestyle</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\maketitle</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Page styles</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\pagenumbering</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="641">\pagenumbering</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="272">page numbering style</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\pagenumbering&lbrace;<var>style</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Specifies the style of page numbers, according to <var>style</var>:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">arabic</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>arabic numerals
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">roman</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>lowercase Roman numerals
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">Roman</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>uppercase Roman numerals
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">alph</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>lowercase letters
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">Alph</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>uppercase letters
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>


</section>
<node name="_005cpagestyle" spaces=" "><nodename>\pagestyle</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\thispagestyle</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\pagenumbering</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Page styles</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\pagestyle</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="642">\pagestyle</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="273">header style</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="274">footer style</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="275">running header and footer style</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\pagestyle&lbrace;<var>style</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\pagestyle</code> command specifies how the headers and footers
are typeset from the current page onwards.  Values for <var>style</var>:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">plain</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Just a plain page number.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">empty</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">headings</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Put running headers on each page.  The document style specifies what
goes in the headers.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">myheadings</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Custom headers, specified via the <code>\markboth</code> or the
<code>\markright</code> commands.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>Here are the descriptions of <code>\markboth</code> and <code>\markright</code>:
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="643">\markboth&lbrace;<var>left</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>right</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\markboth&lbrace;<var>left</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>right</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Sets both the left and the right heading.  A &textldquo;left-hand heading&textrdquo;
(<var>left</var>) is generated by the last <code>\markboth</code> command before
the end of the page, while a &textldquo;right-hand heading&textrdquo; (<var>right</var> is
generated by the first <code>\markboth</code> or <code>\markright</code> that
comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before
the page.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="644">\markright&lbrace;<var>right</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\markright&lbrace;<var>right</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="_005cthispagestyle" spaces=" "><nodename>\thispagestyle</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\pagestyle</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Page styles</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\thispagestyle&lbrace;<var>style</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="645">\thispagestyle</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\thispagestyle</code> command works in the same manner as the
<code>\pagestyle</code> command (see previous section) except that it
changes to <var>style</var> for the current page only.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Spaces" spaces=" "><nodename>Spaces</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Boxes</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Page styles</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Spaces</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="276">spaces</indexterm></cindex>

<para>&latex; has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.
</para>
<para>Another space-producing command is <code>\,</code> to produce a &textldquo;thin&textrdquo;
space (usually 1/6<dmn>quad</dmn>).  It can be used in text mode, but is
more often useful in math mode  (<pxref label="Spacing-in-math-mode"><xrefnodename>Spacing in math mode</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menucomment><pre xml:space="preserve">Horizontal space
</pre></menucomment><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::             ">\hspace</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Fixed horizontal space.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\hfill</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Stretchable horizontal space.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\SPACE</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Normal interword space.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                 ">\AT</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Ending a sentence.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">\thinspace</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">One-sixth of an em.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                  ">\/</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Per-character italic correction.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">\hrulefill</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Stretchable horizontal rule.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\dotfill</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Stretchable horizontal dots.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menucomment><pre xml:space="preserve">
Vertical space
</pre></menucomment><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                    ">\addvspace</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Add arbitrary vertical space if needed.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">\bigskip \medskip \smallskip</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Fixed vertical spaces.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                        ">\vfill</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Infinitely stretchable vertical space.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                       ">\vspace</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Add arbitrary vertical space.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005chspace" spaces=" "><nodename>\hspace</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\hfill</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\hspace</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="646">\hspace</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\hspace[*]&lbrace;<var>length</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\hspace</code> command adds horizontal space.  The <var>length</var>
argument can be expressed in any terms that &latex; understands:
points, inches, etc.  It is a rubber length.  You can add both
negative and positive space with an <code>\hspace</code> command; adding
negative space is like backspacing.
</para>
<para>&latex; normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning
or end of a line.  To preserve this space, use the optional <code>*</code>
form.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005chfill" spaces=" "><nodename>\hfill</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\SPACE</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\hspace</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\hfill</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="647">\hfill</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\hfill</code> fill command produces a &textldquo;rubber length&textrdquo; which has
no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as
needed.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="648">\fill</indexterm></findex>
<para>The <code>\fill</code> parameter is the rubber length itself (technically,
the glue value <samp>0pt plus1fill</samp>); thus, <code>\hspace\fill</code> is
equivalent to <code>\hfill</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cSPACE" spaces=" "><nodename>\SPACE</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\AT</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\hfill</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\SPACE</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="649">\SPACE</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="650">\TAB</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="651">\NEWLINE</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\ </code> (space) command produces a normal interword space.  It&textrsquo;s
useful after punctuation which shouldn&textrsquo;t end a sentence.  For example
<code>Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental</code>.
It is also often used after control sequences, as in <code>\TeX\ is a
nice system.</code>
</para>
<para>In normal circumstances, <code>\</code><key>tab</key> and <code>\</code><key>newline</key>
are equivalent to <code>\ </code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cAT" spaces=" "><nodename>\AT</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\thinspace</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\SPACE</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\&arobase;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="652">\&arobase;</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\&arobase;</code> command makes the following punctuation character end a
sentence even if it normally would not.  This is typically used after
a capital letter.  Here are side-by-side examples with and without
<code>\&arobase;</code>:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">&dots; in C\&arobase;. Pascal, though &dots;
&dots; in C. Pascal, though &dots;
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent> <para>produces
</para>
<!-- c Texinfo does it differently, but the result is the same. -->
<quotation endspaces=" ">
<para>&dots; in C&eosperiod; Pascal, though &dots;&linebreak;
&dots; in C. Pascal, though &dots;
</para></quotation>


</section>
<node name="_005cthinspace" spaces=" "><nodename>\thinspace</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\/</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\AT</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\thinspace</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="653">\thinspace</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\thinspace</code> produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that
is 1/6 of an em.  This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as
in &textrsquo;<dmn>&textrdquo;</dmn>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005c_002f" spaces=" "><nodename>\/</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\hrulefill</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\thinspace</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\/</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="654">\/</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\/</code> command produces an <dfn>italic correction</dfn>.  This is a
small space defined by the font designer for a given character,
to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows.  The italic
<i>f</i> character typically has a large italic correction value.
</para>
<para>If the following character is a period or comma, it&textrsquo;s not necessary to
insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a
very small height.  However, with semicolons or colons, as well as
normal letters, it can help. Compare
<tex endspaces=" ">
{\it f\/: f\/;}
</tex>
<i>f: f;</i> (in the &tex; output, the &textlsquo;f&textrsquo;s are nicely separated)
with <i>f: f;</i>.
</para>
<para>Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic
correction.  Compare
<tex endspaces=" ">
pdf\/\TeX{}
</tex>
pdf&tex; (in the &tex; output, there is a small space after the &textlsquo;f&textrsquo;)
with pdf&tex;.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005chrulefill" spaces=" "><nodename>\hrulefill</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\dotfill</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\/</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\hrulefill</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="655">\hrulefill</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\hrulefill</code> fill command produces a &textldquo;rubber length&textrdquo; which can
stretch or shrink horizontally.  It will be filled with a horizontal
rule.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cdotfill" spaces=" "><nodename>\dotfill</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\addvspace</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\hrulefill</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\dotfill</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="656">\dotfill</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\dotfill</code> command produces a &textldquo;rubber length&textrdquo; that fills
with dots instead of just white space.
</para>

<!-- c xx undone -->
</section>
<node name="_005caddvspace" spaces=" "><nodename>\addvspace</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\bigskip \medskip \smallskip</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\dotfill</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\addvspace</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="657">\addvspace</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="277">vertical space</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="278">space, inserting vertical</indexterm></cindex>

<para><code>\addvspace&lbrace;length&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>The <code>\addvspace</code> command normally adds a vertical space of height
length.  However, if vertical space has already been added to the same
point in the output by a previous <code>\addvspace</code> command, then this
command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length
of the total vertical space equal to <code>length</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cbigskip-_005cmedskip-_005csmallskip" spaces=" "><nodename>\bigskip \medskip \smallskip</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\vfill</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\addvspace</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\bigskip \medskip \smallskip</code></sectiontitle>

<para>These commands produce a given amount of space.
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\bigskip</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="658">\bigskip</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="659">\bigskipamount</indexterm></findex>
<para>The same as <code>\vspace&lbrace;bigskipamount&rbrace;</code>, ordinarily about one line
space (with stretch and shrink).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\medskip</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="660">\medskip</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="661">\medskipamount</indexterm></findex>
<para>The same as <code>\vspace&lbrace;medskipamount&rbrace;</code>, ordinarily
about half of a line space (with stretch and shrink).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\smallskip</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="662">\smallskip</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="663">\smallskipamount</indexterm></findex>
<para>The same as <code>\vspace&lbrace;smallskipamount&rbrace;</code>, ordinarily about a
quarter of a line space (with stretch and shrink).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>The <code>\...amount</code> parameters are determined by the document class.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cvfill" spaces=" "><nodename>\vfill</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\vspace</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\bigskip \medskip \smallskip</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\vfill</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="664">\vfill</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\vfill</code> fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which
can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed.  It&textrsquo;s equivalent to
<code>\vspace&lbrace;\fill&rbrace;</code> (<pxref label="_005chfill"><xrefnodename>\hfill</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cvspace" spaces=" "><nodename>\vspace</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\vfill</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Spaces</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\vspace[*]&lbrace;<var>length</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="665">\vspace</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\vspace[*]&lbrace;<var>length</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\vspace</code> command adds the vertical space <var>length</var>, i.e.,
a rubber length.  <var>length</var> can be negative or positive.
</para>
<para>Ordinarily, &latex; removes vertical space added by <code>\vspace</code> at
the top or bottom of a page.  With the optional <code>*</code> argument, the
space is not removed.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Boxes" spaces=" "><nodename>Boxes</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Special insertions</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Spaces</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Boxes</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="279">boxes</indexterm></cindex>

<para>All the predefined length parameters (<pxref label="Predefined-lengths"><xrefnodename>Predefined lengths</xrefnodename></pxref>) can be
used in the arguments of the box-making commands.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">\mbox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Horizontal boxes.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator=":: ">\fbox and \framebox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Put a frame around a box.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">lrbox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">An environment like \sbox.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\makebox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Box, adjustable position.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::             ">\parbox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Box with text in paragraph mode.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           ">\raisebox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Raise or lower text.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\savebox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Like \makebox, but save the text for later use.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">\sbox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Like \mbox, but save the text for later use.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::             ">\usebox</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Print saved text.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005cmbox" spaces=" "><nodename>\mbox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\fbox and \framebox</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\mbox&lbrace;<var>text&rbrace;</var></code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="666">\mbox</indexterm></findex>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="280">hyphenation, preventing</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>\mbox</code> command creates a box just wide enough to hold the
text created by its argument.  The <var>text</var> is not broken into
lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cfbox-and-_005cframebox" spaces=" "><nodename>\fbox and \framebox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">lrbox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\mbox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\fbox</code> and <code>\framebox</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="667">\fbox</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="668">\framebox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopses:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\fbox&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
\framebox[<var>width</var>][<var>position</var>]&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\fbox</code> and <code>\framebox</code> commands are like <code>\mbox</code>,
except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.
</para>
<para>In addition, the <code>\framebox</code> command allows for explicit
specification of the box width with the optional <var>width</var> argument
(a dimension), and positioning with the optional <var>position</var>
argument. <!-- c xxref -->
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="669">\fboxrule</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="670">\fboxsep</indexterm></findex>
<para>Both commands produce a rule of thickness <code>\fboxrule</code> (default
<samp>.4pt</samp>), and leave a space of <code>\fboxsep</code> (default
<samp>3pt</samp>) between the rule and the contents of the box.
</para>
<para><xref label="_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029"><xrefnodename>\framebox (picture)</xrefnodename></xref>, for the <code>\framebox</code> command in the
<code>picture</code> environment.
</para>

</section>
<node name="lrbox" spaces=" "><nodename>lrbox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\makebox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\fbox and \framebox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>lrbox</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="671">lrbox</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\begin&lbrace;lrbox&rbrace;&lbrace;cmd&rbrace; text \end&lbrace;lrbox&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>This is the environment form of <code>\sbox</code>.
</para>
<para>The text inside the environment is saved in the box <code>cmd</code>, which
must have been declared with <code>\newsavebox</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cmakebox" spaces=" "><nodename>\makebox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\parbox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">lrbox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\makebox</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="672">\makebox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\makebox[<var>width</var>][<var>position</var>]&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\makebox</code> command creates a box just wide enough to contain
the <var>text</var> specified.  The width of the box is specified by the
optional <var>width</var> argument.  The position of the text within the box
is determined by the optional <var>position</var> argument, which may take
the following values:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">c</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Centered (default).
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">l</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Flush left.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">r</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Flush right.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">s</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>Stretch (justify) across entire <var>width</var>; <var>text</var> must contain
stretchable space for this to work.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para><code>\makebox</code> is also used within the picture environment
<pxref label="_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029"><xrefnodename>\makebox (picture)</xrefnodename></pxref>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cparbox" spaces=" "><nodename>\parbox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\raisebox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\makebox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\parbox</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="673">\parbox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\parbox[<var>position</var>][<var>height</var>][<var>inner-pos</var>]&lbrace;<var>width</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\parbox</code> command produces a box whose contents are created
in <code>paragraph</code> mode.  It should be used to make a box small
pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside.  In particular, you
shouldn&textrsquo;t use any paragraph-making environments inside a
<code>\parbox</code> argument.  For larger pieces of text, including ones
containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a
<code>minipage</code> environment (<pxref label="minipage"><xrefnodename>minipage</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<para><code>\parbox</code> has two mandatory arguments:
</para>
<table commandarg="var" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">width</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>the width of the parbox;
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">text</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>the text that goes inside the parbox.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<para>The optional <var>position</var> argument allows you to align either the
top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding
text (default is top).
</para>
<para>The optional <var>height</var> argument overrides the natural height of the box.
</para>
<para>The <var>inner-pos</var> argument controls the placement of the text inside
the box, as follows; if it is not specified, <var>position</var> is used.
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">t</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>text is placed at the top of the box.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">c</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>text is centered in the box.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">b</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>text is placed at the bottom of the box.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">s</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space
for this to work.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>


</section>
<node name="_005craisebox" spaces=" "><nodename>\raisebox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\savebox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\parbox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\raisebox</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="674">\raisebox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\raisebox&lbrace;distance&rbrace;[<var>height</var>][<var>depth</var>]&lbrace;text&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\raisebox</code> command raises or lowers <var>text</var>.  The first
mandatory argument specifies how high <var>text</var> is to be raised (or
lowered if it is a negative amount).  <var>text</var> itself is processed
in LR mode.
</para>
<para>The optional arguments <var>height</var> and <var>depth</var> are dimensions.
If they are specified, &latex; treats <var>text</var> as extending a
certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth),
ignoring its natural height and depth.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005csavebox" spaces=" "><nodename>\savebox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\sbox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\raisebox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\savebox</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="675">\savebox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\savebox&lbrace;<var>\boxcmd</var>&rbrace;[<var>width</var>][<var>pos</var>]&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>This command typeset <var>text</var> in a box just as with <code>\makebox</code>
(<pxref label="_005cmakebox"><xrefnodename>\makebox</xrefnodename></pxref>), except that instead of printing the resulting box,
it saves it in the box labeled <var>\boxcmd</var>, which must have been
declared with <code>\newsavebox</code> (<pxref label="_005cnewsavebox"><xrefnodename>\newsavebox</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005csbox" spaces=" "><nodename>\sbox</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\usebox</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\savebox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\sbox&lbrace;<var>\boxcmd</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="676">\sbox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\sbox&lbrace;<var>\boxcmd</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para><code>\sbox</code> types <var>text</var> in a box just as with <code>\mbox</code>
(<pxref label="_005cmbox"><xrefnodename>\mbox</xrefnodename></pxref>) except that instead of the resulting box being
included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled
<var>\boxcmd</var>.  <var>\boxcmd</var> must have been previously declared with
<code>\newsavebox</code> (<pxref label="_005cnewsavebox"><xrefnodename>\newsavebox</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cusebox" spaces=" "><nodename>\usebox</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\sbox</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Boxes</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\usebox&lbrace;<var>\boxcmd</var></code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="677">\usebox</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\usebox&lbrace;<var>\boxcmd</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para><code>\usebox</code> producesthe box most recently saved in the bin
<var>\boxcmd</var> by a <code>\savebox</code> command (<pxref label="_005csavebox"><xrefnodename>\savebox</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Special-insertions" spaces=" "><nodename>Special insertions</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Splitting the input</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Boxes</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Special insertions</sectiontitle>

<para>&latex; provides commands for inserting characters that have a
special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::     ">Reserved characters</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Inserting # $ % &amp; ~ _ ^ \ &lbrace; &rbrace;
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">Text symbols</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Inserting other non-letter symbols in text.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                 ">Accents</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Inserting accents.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::  ">Non-English characters</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Inserting other non-English characters.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                   ">\rule</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Inserting lines and rectangles.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                  ">\today</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Inserting today&textrsquo;s date.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="Reserved-characters" spaces=" "><nodename>Reserved characters</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Text symbols</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Special insertions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Reserved characters</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="281">reserved characters</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="282">characters, reserved</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The following characters play a special role in &latex; and are called
&textldquo;reserved characters&textrdquo; or &textldquo;special characters&textrdquo;.
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve"># $ % &amp; ~ _ ^ \ &lbrace; &rbrace;
</pre></example>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="678">\#</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="679">\$</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="680">\%</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="681">\&amp;</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="682">\_</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="683">\&lbrace;</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="684">\&rbrace;</indexterm></findex>
<para>Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, &latex;
will do something special.  If you simply want the character to be
printed as itself, include a <code>\</code> in front of the character.  For
example, <code>\$</code> will produce <code>$</code> in your output.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="685">\backslash</indexterm></findex>
<para>One exception to this rule is <code>\</code> itself, because <code>\\</code> has
its own special (context-dependent) meaning.  A roman \ is produced by
typing <code>$\backslash$</code> in your file, and a typewriter <code>\</code> is
produced by using <samp>\</samp> in a verbatim command (<pxref label="verbatim"><xrefnodename>verbatim</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="686">\~</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="687">\^</indexterm></findex>
<para>Also, <code>\~</code> and <code>\^</code> place tilde and circumflex accents over
the following letter, as in <accent type="tilde">o</accent> and <accent type="circ">o</accent> (<pxref label="Accents"><xrefnodename>Accents</xrefnodename></pxref>); to get
a standalone <code>~</code> or <code>^</code>, you can again use a verbatim
command.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="688">\symbol</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="283">accessing any character of a font</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you
know its number by using the <code>\symbol</code> command. For example, the
visible space character used in the <code>\verb*</code> command has the code
decimal 32, so it can be typed as <code>\symbol&lbrace;32&rbrace;</code>.
</para>
<para>You can also specify octal numbers with <code>'</code> or hexadecimal numbers
with <code>&quot;</code>, so the previous example could also be written as
<code>\symbol&lbrace;'40&rbrace;</code> or <code>\symbol&lbrace;&quot;20&rbrace;</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Text-symbols" spaces=" "><nodename>Text symbols</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Accents</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Reserved characters</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Special insertions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Text symbols</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="284">text symbols</indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="689">textcomp <r>package</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>&latex; provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols
in running text.  Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are
not available in OT1; you may need to load the <code>textcomp</code> package.
</para>
<ftable commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<beforefirstitem>
</beforefirstitem><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="690">\copyright</indexterm>\copyright</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="691">\textcopyright</indexterm>\textcopyright</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="285">copyright symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The copyright symbol, &copyright;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="692">\dag</indexterm>\dag</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="286">dagger, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The dagger symbol (in text).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="693">\ddag</indexterm>\ddag</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="287">double dagger, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The double dagger symbol (in text).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="694">\LaTeX</indexterm>\LaTeX</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="288">&latex; logo</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="289">logo, &latex;</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The &latex; logo.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="695">\guillemotleft <r>(&laquo;)</r></indexterm>\guillemotleft <r>(&laquo;)</r></itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="696">\guillemotright <r>(&raquo;)</r></indexterm>\guillemotright <r>(&raquo;)</r></itemformat></itemx>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="697">\guilsinglleft <r>(&lsaquo;)</r></indexterm>\guilsinglleft <r>(&lsaquo;)</r></itemformat></itemx>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="698">\guilsinglright <r>(&rsaquo;)</r></indexterm>\guilsinglright <r>(&rsaquo;)</r></itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="290">double guillemets</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="291">single guillemets</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="292">left angle quotation marks</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="293">right angle quotation marks</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="294">double angle quotation marks</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="295">single angle quotation marks</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="296">French quotation marks</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="297">quotation marks, French</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French:
&laquo;, &raquo;, &lsaquo;, &rsaquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="699">\ldots</indexterm>\ldots</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="700">\dots</indexterm>\dots</itemformat></itemx>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="701">\textellipsis</indexterm>\textellipsis</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="298">ellipsis</indexterm></cindex>
<para>An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): &textlsquo;&dots;&textrsquo;.  <code>\ldots</code>
and <code>\dots</code> also work in math mode.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="702">\lq</indexterm>\lq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="299">left quote</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="300">opening quote</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Left (opening) quote: &textlsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="703">\P</indexterm>\P</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="704">\textparagraph</indexterm>\textparagraph</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="301">paragraph symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="302">pilcrow</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Paragraph sign (pilcrow).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="705">\pounds</indexterm>\pounds</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="706">\textsterling</indexterm>\textsterling</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="303">pounds symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="304">sterling symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<para>English pounds sterling: &pound;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="707">\quotedblbase <r>(&bdquo;)</r></indexterm>\quotedblbase <r>(&bdquo;)</r></itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="708">\quotesinglbase <r>(&sbquo;)</r></indexterm>\quotesinglbase <r>(&sbquo;)</r></itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="305">double low-9 quotation mark</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="306">single low-9 quotation mark</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="307">low-9 quotation marks, single and double</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: 
&bdquo; and &sbquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="709">\rq</indexterm>\rq</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="308">right quote</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="309">closing quote</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Right (closing) quote: &textrsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="710">\S</indexterm>\S</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="310">section symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Section symbol.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="711">\TeX</indexterm>\TeX</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="311">&tex; logo</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="312">logo, &tex;</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The &tex; logo.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="712">\textasciicircum</indexterm>\textasciicircum</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="313">circumflex, ASCII, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="314">ASCII circumflex, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>ASCII circumflex: ^.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="713">\textasciitilde</indexterm>\textasciitilde</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="315">tilde, ASCII, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="316">ASCII tilde, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>ASCII tilde: ~.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="714">\textasteriskcentered</indexterm>\textasteriskcentered</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="317">asterisk, centered, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="318">centered asterisk, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Centered asterisk: *.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="715">\textbackslash</indexterm>\textbackslash</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="319">backslash, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Backslash: \.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="716">\textbar</indexterm>\textbar</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="320">vertical bar, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="321">bar, vertical, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Vertical bar: |.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="717">\textbardbl</indexterm>\textbardbl</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="322">vertical bar, double, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="323">bar, double vertical, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="324">double vertical bar, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Double vertical bar.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="718">\textbigcircle</indexterm>\textbigcircle</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="325">big circle symbols, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="326">circle symbol, big, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Big circle symbol.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="719">\textbraceleft</indexterm>\textbraceleft</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="327">left brace, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="328">brace, left, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Left brace: &lbrace;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="720">\textbraceright</indexterm>\textbraceright</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="329">right brace, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="330">brace, right, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Right brace: &rbrace;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="721">\textbullet</indexterm>\textbullet</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="331">bullet, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Bullet: &bullet;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="722">\textcircled&lbrace;<var>letter</var>&rbrace;</indexterm>\textcircled&lbrace;<var>letter</var>&rbrace;</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="332">circled letter, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para><var>letter</var> in a circle, as in &registered;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="723">\textcompwordmark</indexterm>\textcompwordmark</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="724">\textcapitalwordmark</indexterm>\textcapitalwordmark</itemformat></itemx>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="725">\textascenderwordmark</indexterm>\textascenderwordmark</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="333">composite word mark, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="334">cap height</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="335">ascender height</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Composite word mark (invisible).  The <code>\textcapital...</code> form
has the cap height of the font, while the <code>\textascender...</code> form
has the ascender height.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="726">\textdagger</indexterm>\textdagger</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="336">dagger, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Dagger: <math>\dag</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="727">\textdaggerdbl</indexterm>\textdaggerdbl</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="337">dagger, double, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="338">double dagger, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Double dagger: <math>\ddag</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="728">\textdollar <r>(or <code>$</code>)</r></indexterm>\textdollar <r>(or <code>$</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="339">dollar sign</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="340">currency, dollar</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Dollar sign: $.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="729">\textemdash <r>(or <code>---</code>)</r></indexterm>\textemdash <r>(or <code>---</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="341">em-dash</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Em-dash: &textmdash; (for punctuation).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="730">\textendash <r>(or <code>--</code>)</r></indexterm>\textendash <r>(or <code>--</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="342">e-dash</indexterm></cindex>
<para>En-dash: &textmdash; (for ranges).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="731">\texteuro</indexterm>\texteuro</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="343">euro symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="344">currency, euro</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The Euro symbol: &euro;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="732">\textexclamdown <r>(or <code>!`</code>)</r></indexterm>\textexclamdown <r>(or <code>!`</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="345">exclamation point, upside-down</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Upside down exclamation point: &iexcl;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="733">\textgreater</indexterm>\textgreater</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="346">greater than symbol, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Greater than: &gt;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="734">\textless</indexterm>\textless</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="347">less than symbol, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Less than: &lt;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="735">\textleftarrow</indexterm>\textleftarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="348">arrow, left, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="349">left arrow, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Left arrow.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="736">\textordfeminine</indexterm>\textordfeminine</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="737">\textordmasculine</indexterm>\textordmasculine</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="350">feminine ordinal symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="351">masculine ordinal symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="352">ordinals, feminine and masculine</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="353">Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: &ordf;, &ordm;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="738">\textperiodcentered</indexterm>\textperiodcentered</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="354">period, centered, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="355">centered period, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Centered period: <math>\cdot</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="739">\textquestiondown <r>(or <code>?`</code>)</r></indexterm>\textquestiondown <r>(or <code>?`</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="356">questionation point, upside-down</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Upside down questionation point: &iquest;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="740">\textquotedblleft <r>(or <code>``</code>)</r></indexterm>\textquotedblleft <r>(or <code>``</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="357">left quote, double</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="358">double left quote</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Double left quote: &textldquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="741">\textquotedblright <r>(or <code>'</code>)</r></indexterm>\textquotedblright <r>(or <code>'</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="359">right quote, double</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="360">double right quote</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Double right quote: &textrdquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="742">\textquoteleft <r>(or <code>`</code>)</r></indexterm>\textquoteleft <r>(or <code>`</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="361">left quote, single</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="362">single left quote</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Single left quote: &textlsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="743">\textquoteright <r>(or <code>'</code>)</r></indexterm>\textquoteright <r>(or <code>'</code>)</r></itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="363">right quote, single</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="364">single right quote</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Single right quote: &textrsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="744">\textquotestraightbase</indexterm>\textquotestraightbase</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="745">\textquotestraightdblbase</indexterm>\textquotestraightdblbase</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="365">quote, straight base</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="366">straight quote, base</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="367">double quote, straight base</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="368">straight double quote, base</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="746">\textregistered</indexterm>\textregistered</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="369">registered symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Registered symbol: &registered;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="747">\textrightarrow</indexterm>\textrightarrow</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="370">arrow, right, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="371">right arrow, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Right arrow.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="748">\textthreequartersemdash</indexterm>\textthreequartersemdash</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="372">three-quarters em-dash</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="373">em-dash, three-quarters</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&textldquo;Three-quarters&textrdquo; em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="749">\texttrademark</indexterm>\texttrademark</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="374">trademark symbol</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Trademark symbol: <math>^{\hbox{TM}}</math>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="750">\texttwelveudash</indexterm>\texttwelveudash</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="375">two-thirds em-dash</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="376">em-dash, two-thirds</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&textldquo;Two-thirds&textrdquo; em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="751">\textunderscore</indexterm>\textunderscore</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="377">underscore, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Underscore: _.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code"><indexterm index="fn" number="752">\textvisiblespace</indexterm>\textvisiblespace</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="378">visible space symbol, in text</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Visible space symbol.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></ftable>


</section>
<node name="Accents" spaces=" "><nodename>Accents</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Non-English characters</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Text symbols</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Special insertions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Accents</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="379">accents</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="380">characters, accented</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="381">letters, accented</indexterm></cindex>

<para>&latex; has wide support for many of the world&textrsquo;s scripts and
languages, through the <code>babel</code> package and related support.  This
section does not attempt to cover all that support.  It merely lists
the core &latex; commands for creating accented characters.
</para>
<para>The <code>\capital...</code> commands produce alternative forms for use with
capital letters.  These are not available with OT1.
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\&quot;</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitaldieresis</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="753">\&quot; <r>(umlaut accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="754">\capitaldieresis</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="382">umlaut accent</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="383">dieresis accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in <accent type="uml">o</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\'</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalacute</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="755">\&textrsquo; <r>(acute accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="756">\capitalacute</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="384">acute accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces an acute accent, as in <accent type="acute">o</accent>.  In the <code>tabbing</code>
environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column
(<pxref label="tabbing"><xrefnodename>tabbing</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\.</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="757">\. <r>(dot-over accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="385">dot accent</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="386">dot-over accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a dot accent over the following, as in <accent type="dotaccent">o</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\=</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalmacron</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="758">\= <r>(macron accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="759">\capitalmacron</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="387">macron accent</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="388">overbar accent</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="389">bar-over accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in <accent type="macr">o</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\^</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalcircumflex</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="760">\^ <r>(circumflex accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="761">\capitalcircumflex</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="390">circumflex accent</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="391">hat accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in <accent type="circ">o</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\`</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalgrave</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="762">\&textlsquo; <r>(grave accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="763">\capitalgrave</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="392">grave accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a grave accent over the following, as in <accent type="grave">o</accent>.  In the
<code>tabbing</code> environment, move following text to the right margin
(<pxref label="tabbing"><xrefnodename>tabbing</xrefnodename></pxref>).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\~</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitaltilde</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="764">\~ <r>(tilde accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="765">\capitaltilde</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="393">tilde accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in <accent type="tilde">n</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\b</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="766">\b <r>(bar-under accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="394">bar-under accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a bar accent under the following, as in <accent type="ubaraccent">o</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\c</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalcedilla</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="767">\c <r>(cedilla accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="768">\capitalcedilla</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="395">cedilla accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in <accent type="cedil">c</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\d</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitaldotaccent</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="769">\d <r>(dot-under accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="770">\capitaldotaccent</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="396">dot-under accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a dot accent under the following, as in <accent type="udotaccent">o</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\H</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalhungarumlaut</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="771">\H <r>(Hungarian umlaut accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="772">\capitalhungarumlaut</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="397">hungarian umlaut accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in <accent type="doubleacute">o</accent>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\i</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="773">\i <r>(dotless i)</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="398">dotless i</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a dotless i, as in &textlsquo;<dotless>i</dotless>&textrsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\j</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="774">\j <r>(dotless j)</r></indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="399">dotless j</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a dotless j, as in &textlsquo;<dotless>j</dotless>&textrsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\k</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalogonek</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="775">\k <r>(ogonek)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="776">\capitalogonek</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="400">ogonek</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a letter with ogonek, as in &textlsquo;<accent type="ogon">o</accent>&textrsquo;.  Not available in
the OT1 encoding.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\r</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalring</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="777">\r <r>(ring accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="778">\capitalring</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="401">ring accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a ring accent, as in &textlsquo;<accent type="ring">o</accent>&textrsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\t</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitaltie</itemformat></itemx>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\newtie</itemformat></itemx>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalnewtie</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="779">\t <r>(tie-after accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="780">\capitaltie</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="781">\newtie</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="782">\capitalnewtie</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="402">tie-after accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a tie-after accent, as in &textlsquo;<accent type="tieaccent">oo</accent>&textrsquo;.  The
<code>\newtie</code> form is centered in its box.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\u</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalbreve</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="783">\u <r>(breve accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="784">\capitalbreve</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="403">breve accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a breve accent, as in &textlsquo;<accent type="breve">o</accent>&textrsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\underbar</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="785">\underbar</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="404">underbar</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text.
The argument is always processed in horizontal mode.  The bar is
always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through
descenders.  See also <code>\underline</code> in <ref label="Math-miscellany"><xrefnodename>Math miscellany</xrefnodename></ref>.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\v</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\capitalcaron</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="786">\v <r>(breve accent)</r></indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="787">\capitalcaron</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="405">hacek accent</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="406">check accent</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="407">caron accent</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Produces a h<accent type="acute" bracketed="off">a</accent><accent type="caron">c</accent>ek (check, caron) accent, as in &textlsquo;<accent type="caron">o</accent>&textrsquo;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>


</section>
<node name="Non_002dEnglish-characters" spaces=" "><nodename>Non-English characters</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\rule</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Accents</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Special insertions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Non-English characters</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="408">special characters</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="409">non-English characters</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="410">characters, non-English</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="411">letters, non-English</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Here are the basic &latex; commands for inserting characters commonly
used in languages other than English.
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<beforefirstitem>
</beforefirstitem><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\aa</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\AA</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="788">\aa (&aring;)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="789">\AA (&Aring;)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="412">aring</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&aring; and &Aring;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\ae</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\AE</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="790">\ae (&aelig;)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="791">\AE (&AElig;)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="413">ae ligature</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&aelig; and &AElig;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\dh</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\DH</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="792">\dh (&aelig;)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="793">\DH (&AElig;)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="414">Icelandic eth</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="415">eth, Icelandic letter</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Icelandic letter eth: &eth; and &ETH;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\dj</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\DJ</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="794">\dj</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="795">\DJ</indexterm></findex>
<para>xxxx
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\ij</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\IJ</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="796">\ij (ij)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="797">\IJ (IJ)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="416">ij letter, Dutch</indexterm></cindex>
<para>ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\l</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\L</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="798">\l (&lslash;)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="799">\L (&Lslash;)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="417">polish l</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&lslash; and &Lslash;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\ng</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\NG</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="800">\ng</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="801">\NG</indexterm></findex>
<para>xxxx
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\o</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\O</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="802">\o (&oslash;)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="803">\O (&Oslash;)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="418">oslash</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&oslash; and &Oslash;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\oe</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\OE</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="804">\oe (&oelig;)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="805">\OE (&OElig;)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="419">oe ligature</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&oelig; and &OElig;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\ss</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\SS</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="806">\ss (&szlig;)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="807">\SS (SS)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="420">es-zet German letter</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="421">sharp S letters</indexterm></cindex>
<para>&szlig; and SS.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\th</itemformat></item>
<itemx spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">\TH</itemformat></itemx>
</tableterm><tableitem><findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="808">\th (&thorn;)</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="809">\TH (&THORN;)</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="422">Icelandic thorn</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="423">thorn, Icelandic letter</indexterm></cindex>
<para>Icelandic letter thorn: &thorn; and &THORN;.
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry></table>


</section>
<node name="_005crule" spaces=" "><nodename>\rule</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\today</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Non-English characters</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Special insertions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\rule</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="810">\rule</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\rule[<var>raise</var>]&lbrace;<var>width</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>thickness</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\rule</code> command produces <dfn>rules</dfn>, that is, lines or
rectangles.  The arguments are:
</para>
<table commandarg="var" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">raise</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>How high to raise the rule (optional).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">width</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The length of the rule (mandatory).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">thickness</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The thickness of the rule (mandatory).
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>


</section>
<node name="_005ctoday" spaces=" "><nodename>\today</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\rule</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Special insertions</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\today</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="811">\today</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\today</code> command produces today&textrsquo;s date, in the format
<samp><var>month</var> <var>dd</var>, <var>yyyy</var></samp>; for example, &textlsquo;July 4, 1976&textrsquo;.
It uses the predefined counters <code>\day</code>, <code>\month</code>, and
<code>\year</code> (<pxref label="_005cday-_005cmonth-_005cyear"><xrefnodename>\day \month \year</xrefnodename></pxref>) to do this.  It is not
updated as the program runs.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="424"><code>datetime</code> package</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>datetime</code> package, among others, can produce a wide variety
of other date formats.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Splitting-the-input" spaces=" "><nodename>Splitting the input</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Front/back matter</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Special insertions</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Splitting the input</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="425">splitting the input file</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="426">input file</indexterm></cindex>

<para>A large document requires a lot of input.  Rather than putting the whole
input in a single large file, it&textrsquo;s more efficient to split it into
several smaller ones.  Regardless of how many separate files you use,
there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type
when you run &latex;.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\include</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Conditionally include a file.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\includeonly</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Determine which files are included.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::              ">\input</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Unconditionally include a file.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005cinclude" spaces=" "><nodename>\include</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\includeonly</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Splitting the input</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\include</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="812">\include</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\include&lbrace;<var>file</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>If no <code>\includeonly</code> command is present, the <code>\include</code>
command executes <code>\clearpage</code> to start a new page
(<pxref label="_005cclearpage"><xrefnodename>\clearpage</xrefnodename></pxref>), then reads <var>file</var>, then does another
<code>\clearpage</code>.
</para>
<para>Given an <code>\includeonly</code> command, the <code>\include</code> actions are
only run if <var>file</var> is listed as an argument to
<code>\includeonly</code>.  See the next section.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="427">nested <code>\include</code>, not allowed</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>\include</code> command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
read by another <code>\include</code> command.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cincludeonly" spaces=" "><nodename>\includeonly</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\input</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\include</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Splitting the input</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>\<code>includeonly</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="813">\includeonly</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\includeonly&lbrace;<var>file1</var>,<var>file2</var>,...&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\includeonly</code> command controls which files will be read by
subsequent <code>\include</code> commands.  The list of filenames is
comma-separated. Each <var>file</var> must exactly match a filename
specified in a <code>\include</code> command for the selection to be
effective.
</para>
<para>This command can only appear in the preamble.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cinput" spaces=" "><nodename>\input</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\includeonly</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Splitting the input</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>\input</sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="814">\input</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\input&lbrace;<var>file</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The <code>\input</code> command causes the specified <var>file</var> to be read
and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current
file at that point.
</para>
<para>If <var>file</var> does not end in <samp>.tex</samp> (e.g., <samp>foo</samp> or
<samp>foo.bar</samp>), it is first tried with that extension (<samp>foo.tex</samp>
or <samp>foo.bar.tex</samp>).  If that is not found, the original <var>file</var>
is tried (<samp>foo</samp> or <samp>foo.bar</samp>).
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Front_002fback-matter" spaces=" "><nodename>Front/back matter</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Letters</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Splitting the input</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Front/back matter</sectiontitle>

<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::">Tables of contents</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::">Glossaries</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::">Indexes</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="Tables-of-contents" spaces=" "><nodename>Tables of contents</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Glossaries</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Front/back matter</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Tables of contents</sectiontitle>

<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="428">table of contents, creating</indexterm></cindex>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="815">\tableofcontents</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="816">.toc <r>file</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>A table of contents is produced with the <code>\tableofcontents</code>
command.  You put the command right where you want the table of
contents to go; &latex; does the rest for you.  A previous run must
have generated a <file>.toc</file> file.
</para>
<para>The <code>\tableofcontents</code> command produces a heading, but it does
not automatically start a new page.  If you want a new page after the
table of contents, write a <code>\newpage</code> command after the
<code>\tableofcontents</code> command.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="817">\listoffigures</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="818">\listoftables</indexterm></findex>
<para>The analogous commands <code>\listoffigures</code> and <code>\listoftables</code>
produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively.
Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="819">\nofiles</indexterm></findex>
<para>The command <code>\nofiles</code> overrides these commands, and
<emph>prevents</emph> any of these lists from being generated.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::    ">\addcontentsline</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Add an entry to table of contents etc.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::      ">\addtocontents</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Add text directly to table of contents file etc.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005caddcontentsline" spaces=" "><nodename>\addcontentsline</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\addtocontents</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Tables of contents</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle>\addcontentsline</sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="820">\addcontentsline&lbrace;<var>ext</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>unit</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="429">table of contents entry, manually adding</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The <code>\addcontentsline</code>&lbrace;<var>ext</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>unit</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
command adds an entry to the specified list or table where:
</para>
<table commandarg="var" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">ext</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The extension of the file on which information is to be written,
typically one of: <code>toc</code> (table of contents), <code>lof</code> (list of
figures), or <code>lot</code> (list of tables).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">unit</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the
following, matching the value of the <var>ext</var> argument:
</para>
<table commandarg="code" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">toc</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The name of the sectional unit: <code>part</code>, <code>chapter</code>,
<code>section</code>, <code>subsection</code>, <code>subsubsection</code>.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">lof</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>For the list of figures.
</para></tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="code">lot</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>For the list of tables.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">entry</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The actual text of the entry.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="821">\contentsline</indexterm></findex>
<para>What is written to the <file>.<var>ext</var></file> file is the
command <code>\contentsline&lbrace;<var>unit</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>name</var>&rbrace;</code>.
</para>
<!-- c ?? how hardwired are these values?  other unit names? -->


</subsection>
<node name="_005caddtocontents" spaces=" "><nodename>\addtocontents</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\addcontentsline</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Tables of contents</nodeup></node>
<subsection spaces=" "><sectiontitle>\addtocontents</sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="822">\addtocontents&lbrace;<var>ext</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\addtocontents</code>&lbrace;<var>ext</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace; command adds text
(or formatting commands) directly to the <file>.<var>ext</var></file> file that
generates the table of contents or lists of figures or tables.
</para>
<table commandarg="var" spaces=" " endspaces=" ">
<tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">ext</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The extension of the file on which information is to be written:
<file>toc</file> (table of contents), <file>lof</file> (list of figures), or
<file>lot</file> (list of tables).
</para>
</tableitem></tableentry><tableentry><tableterm><item spaces=" "><itemformat command="var">text</itemformat></item>
</tableterm><tableitem><para>The text to be written.
</para></tableitem></tableentry></table>


</subsection>
</section>
<node name="Glossaries" spaces=" "><nodename>Glossaries</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Indexes</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Tables of contents</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Front/back matter</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Glossaries</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="430">glossaries</indexterm></cindex>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="823">\makeglossary</indexterm></findex>
<para>The command <code>\makeglossary</code> enables creating glossaries.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="824">\glossary</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="431"><file>.glo</file> file</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The command <code>\glossary&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</code> writes a glossary entry for
<var>text</var> to an auxiliary file with the <file>.glo</file> extension.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="825">\glossaryentry</indexterm></findex>
<para>Specifically, what gets written is the command
<code>\glossaryentry&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>pageno</var>&rbrace;</code>, where
<var>pageno</var> is the current <code>\thepage</code> value.
</para>
<para>The <code>glossary</code> package on CTAN provides support for fancier
glossaries.
</para>

</section>
<node name="Indexes" spaces=" "><nodename>Indexes</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">Glossaries</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Front/back matter</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Indexes</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="432">indexes</indexterm></cindex>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="826">\makeindex</indexterm></findex>
<para>The command <code>\makeindex</code> enables creating indexes.  Put this in
the preamble.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="827">\index</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="433"><file>.idx</file> file</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The command <code>\index&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</code> writes an index entry for
<var>text</var> to an auxiliary file with the <file>.idx</file> extension.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="828">\indexentry</indexterm></findex>
<para>Specifically, what gets written is the command
<code>\indexentry&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;&lbrace;<var>pageno</var>&rbrace;</code>, where <var>pageno</var>
is the current <code>\thepage</code> value.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="434">&textlsquo;see&textrsquo; and &textlsquo;see also&textrsquo; index entries</indexterm></cindex>
<para>To generate a index entry for &textlsquo;bar&textrsquo; that says &textlsquo;See foo&textrsquo;, use a
vertical bar: <code>\index&lbrace;bar|see&lbrace;foo&rbrace;&rbrace;</code>.  Use <code>seealso</code>
instead of <code>see</code> to make a &textlsquo;See also&textrsquo; entry.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="829">\seename</indexterm></findex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="830">\alsoname</indexterm></findex>
<para>The text &textlsquo;See&textrsquo; is defined by the macro <code>\seename</code>, and &textlsquo;See also&textrsquo;
by the macro <code>\alsoname</code>.  These can be redefined for other
languages.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="435"><command>makeindex</command> program</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="436"><command>xindy</command> program</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="437"><file>.ind</file> file</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The generated <file>.idx</file> file is then sorted with an external
command, usually either <command>makeindex</command>
(<url><urefurl>http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex</urefurl></url>) or (the
multi-lingual) <command>xindy</command> (<url><urefurl>http://xindy.sourceforge.net</urefurl></url>).
This results in a <file>.ind</file> file, which can then be read to typeset
the index.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="831">printindex</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="438"><code>makeidx</code> package</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The index is usually generated with the <code>\printindex</code> command.
This is defined in the <code>makeidx</code> package, so
<code>\usepackage&lbrace;makeidx&rbrace;</code> needs to be in the preamble.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="832">indexspace</indexterm></findex>
<para>The rubber length <code>\indexspace</code> is inserted before each new
letter in the printed index; its default value is <samp>10pt plus5pt
minus3pt</samp>.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="439"><code>showidx</code> package</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>showidx</code> package causes each index entries to be shown in
the margin on the page where the entry appears.  This can help in
preparing the index.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="440"><code>multind</code> package</indexterm></cindex>
<para>The <code>multind</code> package supports multiple indexes.  See also the
&tex; FAQ entry on this topic,
<url><urefurl>http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind</urefurl></url>.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Letters" spaces=" "><nodename>Letters</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Terminal input/output</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Front/back matter</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Letters</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="441">letters</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="442">creating letters</indexterm></cindex>

<para>You can use &latex; to typeset letters, both personal and business.  The
<code>letter</code> document class is designed to make a number of letters at
once, although you can make just one if you so desire.
</para>
<para>Your <file>.tex</file> source file has the same minimum commands as the other
document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a
minimum:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve"> \documentclass&lbrace;letter&rbrace;
 \begin&lbrace;document&rbrace;
  ... letters ...
 \end&lbrace;document&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Each letter is a <code>letter</code> environment, whose argument is the name
and address of the recipient.  For example, you might have:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve"> \begin&lbrace;letter&rbrace;&lbrace;Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
      \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA&rbrace;
   ...
 \end&lbrace;letter&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>The letter itself begins with the <code>\opening</code> command.  The text of
the letter follows.  It is typed as ordinary &latex; input.  Commands that
make no sense in a letter, like <code>\chapter</code>, do not work.  The letter
closes with a <code>\closing</code> command.
</para>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="833">\\ <r>for letters</r></indexterm></findex>
<para>After the <code>closing</code>, you can have additional material.  The
<code>\cc</code> command produces the usual &textldquo;cc: &dots;&textrdquo;.  There&textrsquo;s also a
similar <code>\encl</code> command for a list of enclosures. With both these
commands, use <code>\\</code> to separate the items.
</para>
<para>These commands are used with the <code>letter</code> class.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\address</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Your return address.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                 ">\cc</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Cc list.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\closing</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Saying goodbye.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">\encl</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">List of enclosed material.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::           ">\location</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Your organisation&textrsquo;s address.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\makelabels</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Making address labels.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::               ">\name</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Your name, for the return address.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\opening</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Saying hello.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::                 ">\ps</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Adding a postscript.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">\signature</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Your signature.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::        ">\startbreaks</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Allow page breaks.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::         ">\stopbreaks</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Disallow page breaks.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::          ">\telephone</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Your phone number.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005caddress" spaces=" "><nodename>\address</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\cc</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle>\address&lbrace;<var>return-address&rbrace;</var></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="834">\address</indexterm></findex>

<para>The <code>\address</code> specifies the return address of a letter, as it
should appear on the letter and the envelope.  Separate lines of the
address should be separated by <code>\\</code> commands.
</para>
<para>If you do not make an <code>\address</code> declaration, then the letter
will be formatted for copying onto your organisation&textrsquo;s standard
letterhead.  (<xref label="Overview"><xrefnodename>Overview</xrefnodename></xref>, for details on your local
implementation).  If you give an <code>\address</code> declaration, then the
letter will be formatted as a personal letter.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005ccc" spaces=" "><nodename>\cc</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\closing</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\address</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\cc</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="835">\cc</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="443">cc list, in letters</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\cc&lbrace;<var>name1</var>\\<var>name2</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Produce a list of <var>name</var>s the letter was copied to.  Each name is
printed on a separate line.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cclosing" spaces=" "><nodename>\closing</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\encl</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\cc</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\closing</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="836">\closing</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="444">letters, ending</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="445">closing letters</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\closing&lbrace;text&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>A letter closes with a <code>\closing</code> command, for example,
</para><example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\closing&lbrace;Best Regards,&rbrace;
</pre></example>


</section>
<node name="_005cencl" spaces=" "><nodename>\encl</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\location</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\closing</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\encl</code></sectiontitle>

<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="837">\encl</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="446">enclosure list</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\encl&lbrace;<var>line1</var>\\<var>line2</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Declare a list of one more enclosures.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005clocation" spaces=" "><nodename>\location</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\makelabels</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\encl</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\location</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="838">\location</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\location&lbrace;address&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>This modifies your organisation&textrsquo;s standard address.  This only appears
if the <code>firstpage</code> pagestyle is selected.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cmakelabels" spaces=" "><nodename>\makelabels</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\name</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\location</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\makelabels</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="839">\makelabels</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\makelabels&lbrace;number&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>If you issue this command in the preamble, &latex; will create a sheet of
address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.
</para>


</section>
<node name="_005cname" spaces=" "><nodename>\name</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\opening</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\makelabels</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\name</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="840">\name</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\name&lbrace;June Davenport&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return
address.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005copening" spaces=" "><nodename>\opening</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\ps</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\name</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\opening&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="841">\opening</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="447">letters, starting</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\opening&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>A letter begins with the <code>\opening</code> command.  The mandatory
argument, <var>text</var>, is whatever text you wish to start your letter.
For instance:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\opening&lbrace;Dear Joe,&rbrace;
</pre></example>


</section>
<node name="_005cps" spaces=" "><nodename>\ps</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\signature</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\opening</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\ps</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="842">\ps</indexterm></findex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="448">postscript, in letters</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Use the <code>\ps</code> command to start a postscript in a letter, after
<code>\closing</code>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005csignature" spaces=" "><nodename>\signature</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\startbreaks</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\ps</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\signature&lbrace;<var>text</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="843">\signature</indexterm></findex>

<para>Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the
space for your signature.  <code>\\</code> starts a new line within
<var>text</var> as usual.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005cstartbreaks" spaces=" "><nodename>\startbreaks</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\stopbreaks</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\signature</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\startbreaks</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="844">\startbreaks</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\startbreaks</code>
</para>
<para>Used after a <code>\stopbreaks</code> command to allow page breaks again.
</para>


</section>
<node name="_005cstopbreaks" spaces=" "><nodename>\stopbreaks</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\telephone</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">\startbreaks</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\stopbreaks</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="845">\stopbreaks</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\stopbreaks</code>
</para>
<para>Inhibit page breaks until a <code>\startbreaks</code> command occurs.
</para>


</section>
<node name="_005ctelephone" spaces=" "><nodename>\telephone</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\stopbreaks</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Letters</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\telephone</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="846">\telephone</indexterm></findex>

<para><code>\telephone&lbrace;number&rbrace;</code>
</para>
<para>This is your telephone number.  This only appears if the
<code>firstpage</code> pagestyle is selected.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Terminal-input_002foutput" spaces=" "><nodename>Terminal input/output</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Command line</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Letters</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Terminal input/output</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="449">input/output</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="450">terminal input/output</indexterm></cindex>

<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::             ">\typein</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Read text from the terminal.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::            ">\typeout</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">Write text to the terminal.
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="_005ctypein" spaces=" "><nodename>\typein</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">\typeout</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Terminal input/output</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\typein[<var>cmd</var>]&lbrace;<var>msg</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="847">\typein</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\typein[<var>\cmd</var>]&lbrace;<var>msg</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para><code>\typein</code> prints <var>msg</var> on the terminal and causes &latex; to
stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return.  If
the optional <var>\cmd</var> argument is omitted, the typed input is
processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the
<code>\typein</code> command.  If the <var>\cmd</var> argument is present, it
must be a command name.  This command name is then defined or
redefined to be the typed input.
</para>

</section>
<node name="_005ctypeout" spaces=" "><nodename>\typeout</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">\typein</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Terminal input/output</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>\typeout&lbrace;<var>msg</var>&rbrace;</code></sectiontitle>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="848">\typeout</indexterm></findex>

<para>Synopsis:
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">\typeout&lbrace;<var>msg</var>&rbrace;
</pre></example>

<para>Prints <code>msg</code> on the terminal and in the <code>log</code> file.
Commands in <code>msg</code> that are defined with <code>\newcommand</code> or
<code>\renewcommand</code> (among others) are replaced by their definitions
before being printed.
</para>
<para>&latex;&textrsquo;s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to <code>msg</code>.  A
<code>\space</code> command in <code>msg</code> causes a single space to be
printed, independent of surrounding spaces.  A <code>^^J</code> in
<code>msg</code> prints a newline.
</para>

</section>
</chapter>
<node name="Command-line" spaces=" "><nodename>Command line</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Document templates</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Terminal input/output</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<chapter spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Command line</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="451">command line</indexterm></cindex>

<para>The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted;
&tex; uses <file>.tex</file> as a default file extension.  If you omit the
input file entirely, &tex; accepts input from the terminal.  You
specify command options by supplying a string as a parameter to the
command; e.g.
</para>
<example endspaces=" ">
<pre xml:space="preserve">latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'
</pre></example>

<noindent></noindent>
<para>will process <file>foo.tex</file> without pausing after every error.
</para>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="452"><samp>*</samp> prompt</indexterm></cindex>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="453">prompt, <samp>*</samp></indexterm></cindex>
<findex index="fn" spaces=" "><indexterm index="fn" number="849">\stop</indexterm></findex>
<para>If &latex; stops in the middle of the document and gives you a
<samp>*</samp> prompt, it is waiting for input.  You can type <code>\stop</code>
(and return) and it will prematurely end the document.
</para>


</chapter>
<node name="Document-templates" spaces=" "><nodename>Document templates</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Concept Index</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Command line</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<appendix spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Document templates</sectiontitle>
<cindex index="cp" spaces=" "><indexterm index="cp" number="454">document templates</indexterm></cindex>

<para>Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will
be useful.  Additional template resources are listed 
<url><urefurl>http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates</urefurl></url>.
</para>
<menu endspaces=" ">
<menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::">book template</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::">beamer template</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">
</pre></menudescription></menuentry><menuentry leadingtext="* "><menunode separator="::">tugboat template</menunode><menudescription><pre xml:space="preserve">
</pre></menudescription></menuentry></menu>


<node name="book-template" spaces=" "><nodename>book template</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">beamer template</nodenext><nodeup automatic="on">Document templates</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>book</code> template</sectiontitle>

<verbatim xml:space="preserve">
\documentclass{book}
\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\chapter{First}
Some text.

\chapter{Second}
Some other text.

\section{A subtopic}
The end.
\end{document}
</verbatim>


</section>
<node name="beamer-template" spaces=" "><nodename>beamer template</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">tugboat template</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">book template</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Document templates</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>beamer</code> template</sectiontitle>

<para>The <code>beamer</code> class creates slides presentations.
</para>
<verbatim xml:space="preserve">
\documentclass{beamer}

\title{Beamer Class template}
\author{Alex Author}
\date{July 31, 2007}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
\begin{frame}[fragile]
 \frametitle{First Slide}

\begin{verbatim}
  This is \verbatim!
\end{verbatim}

\end{frame}

\end{document}
</verbatim>

<para>One web resource for this:
<url><urefurl>http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/</urefurl></url>.
</para>

</section>
<node name="tugboat-template" spaces=" "><nodename>tugboat template</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">beamer template</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Document templates</nodeup></node>
<section spaces=" "><sectiontitle><code>tugboat</code> template</sectiontitle>

<para><cite>TUGboat</cite> is the journal of the &tex; Users Group,
<url><urefurl>http://tug.org/TUGboat</urefurl></url>.
</para>
<verbatim xml:space="preserve">
\documentclass{ltugboat}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{ifpdf}
\ifpdf
\usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black,
            urlcolor=black]{hyperref}
\else
\usepackage{url}
\fi

\title{Example \TUB\ article}

% repeat info for each author.
\author{First Last}
\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
This is an example article for \TUB{}.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction}

This is an example article for \TUB, from
\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.

We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the
hyperref package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output).
Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.

The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more:

% verbatim blocks are often better in \small
\begin{verbatim}[\small]
\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
\BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
\ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe
\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX
\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP
\TUB \TUG \tug
\UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE

\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
\careof \thinskip

\acro{FRED} -&gt; {\small[er] fred}  % please use!
\cs{fred}   -&gt; \fred
\env{fred}  -&gt; \begin{fred}
\meta{fred} -&gt; &lt;fred&gt;
\nth{n}     -&gt; 1st, 2nd, ...
\sfrac{3/4} -&gt; 3/4
\booktitle{Book of Fred}
\end{verbatim}

For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
(we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references).

Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.

\bibliographystyle{plain}  % we recommend the plain bibliography style
\nocite{book-minimal}      % just making the bibliography non-empty
\bibliography{xampl}       % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX

\makesignature
\end{document}
</verbatim>


</section>
</appendix>
<node name="Concept-Index" spaces=" "><nodename>Concept Index</nodename><nodenext automatic="on">Command Index</nodenext><nodeprev automatic="on">Document templates</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<unnumbered spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Concept Index</sectiontitle>

<printindex value="cp" line=" cp"></printindex>

<!-- c The name of the `Command Index' node must NOT be altered for ltx-help.el. -->
</unnumbered>
<node name="Command-Index" spaces=" "><nodename>Command Index</nodename><nodeprev automatic="on">Concept Index</nodeprev><nodeup automatic="on">Top</nodeup></node>
<unnumbered spaces=" "><sectiontitle>Command Index</sectiontitle>

<printindex value="fn" line=" fn"></printindex>

</unnumbered>
<bye></bye>
</texinfo>
